French and Indian Wars: Difference between revisions

The '''French and Indian Wars''' were a series of conflicts that occurred in [[North America]] between 1688 and 1763, some of which indirectly were related to the European dynastic wars. The title ''[[French and Indian War]]'' in the singular is used in the [[United States]] specifically for the warfare of 1754–63, which iscomposed mostlythe coincidentNorth withAmerican theatre of the [[Seven Years' War]] and the aftermath of which led to the [[American Revolution]]. The French and Indian Wars were preceded by the [[Beaver Wars]].

In [[Quebec]], the various wars are generally referred to as the Intercolonial Wars. Some conflicts involved Spanish and Dutch forces, but all pitted the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], [[British America|its colonies]], and their [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|IndianIndigenous]] allies on one side against [[France]], [[French colonization of the Americas|its colonies]], and its IndianIndigenous allies on the other. A majordriving cause ofbehind the wars was the desire of each country to take control of the interior territories of America, as well as the region around [[Hudson Bay]]; both were deemed essential to domination of the [[fur trade]].

'''[[King William's War]]'''<br />''1st Intercolonial War'' (in [[French language|French]])<ref>Auguste Carlier, "Histoire du peuple américain. États-Unis, Volume 2", Paris, 1863, p.128 [https://books.google.frcom/books?id=qqcyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA128&dq=%22Guerres+intercoloniales%22+amerique&hlpg=fr&sa=X&ei=aiO6VPzwE8PnaMSrgagP&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Guerres%20intercoloniales%22%20amerique&f=falsePA128]</ref>

| valign=top|[[War of the Grand Alliance]]<br />War of the [[League of Augsburg]]<br />[[Nine Years' War]]

'''[[Queen Anne's War]]'''<br />''2nd Intercolonial War'' <br />'''[[Dummer's War]]'''

'''[[French and Indian War|The French and Indian War]]''' (in the U.S.) <br /> '''[[Seven Years' War]]''' (in Canada) <br /> ''4th Intercolonial War'' or ''War of the Conquest'' (in Quebec)<ref>Marcel Trudel, Guy Frégault, "La guerre de la conquête, 1754-17601754–1760", Montréal, 1955 [https://books.google.frcom/books?id=pO80AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Guerre+de+la+conquete%22&dq=%22Guerre+de+la+conquete%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=vyS6VJvgC9HjaMyqgoAO&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ]</ref> <br />''6th Indian War''<ref>William Williamson. The history of the state of Maine. Vol. 2. 1832. p. 304</ref> <br />'''[[Father Le Loutre's War]]'''

As the wars proceeded, the military advantage moved toward the British side. This was chiefly the result of the greater population and productive capacity of the British colonies compared with those of France. In addition, the British had the greater ability to resupply their colonies and project military power by sea. In the first three conflicts, the French were able to offset these factors largely by more effective [[mobilization]] of IndianIndigenous allies, but they were finally overwhelmed in the fourth and last war.

The overwhelming victory of the British played a role in the eventual loss of their thirteen American colonies. Without the threat of French invasion, the American colonies saw little need for British military protection. In addition, the American people resented British efforts to limit their colonization of the new French territories to the west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], as stated in the [[Proclamation of 1763]], in an effort to relieve encroachment on IndianIndigenous territory. These pressures contributed to the [[American Revolutionary War]].

[[File:Fort Carillon.JPG|thumb|[[Fort Carillon]] controlled the [[portage]] between [[Lake George (lake), New York)|Lake George]] and [[Lake Champlain]].]]

The belligerents strove in general to control the major transportation and trade routes, not just the sea routes that connected the colonies with the mother country, or the land routes that existed between the different colonies, but also the major fur trade routes leading to the interior of North America. These were normally along lakes and rivers and stretching from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Many Native Americanindigenous Nations lived by these routes, and became involved in the wars between the great powers of Europe. The belligerents built fortified positions at major transportation hubs and requested the help of the local Nativeindigenous population to defend these, and to attack enemy positions.<ref name="Leach">Douglas E. Leach (1988). "Colonial Indian Wars." ''Handbook of North American Indians 4: History of IndianIndigenous-White Relations.'' Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 128-143.</ref>

A common view is that European [[combat|combat methods]] and [[military tactics]] were not adapted to the American forests and to the Native Americanindigenous art of war. It is therefore conjectured that the English colonists designed new combat techniques, inspired by the IndianIndigenous combat methods. These techniques, which included cover and stressed [[ambush]]es, is supposed to have been the reason why the colonists finally defeated the French, and then the British army during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. In reality, however, the French and Indian wars were finally won by Britain through the application of traditional European tactics. The [[Fortress of Louisbourg]] surrendered twice after [[siege]]s conducted according to the rules of European warfare, and the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] 1759 was a European battle fought in closed formations in the open.<ref>[http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=9031 Lance Janda. Review of: ''Guy Chet (2003). ''Conquering the American Wilderness: The Triumph of European Warfare in the Colonial Northeast'' Amherst.] Retrieved 2017-02-10.</ref><ref>[https://news.unt.edu/news-releases/warfare-tactics-british-not-those-tribes-helped-americans-win-war-independence-histori "Warfare tactics from British, not those of tribes, helped Americans win War of Independence, historian says." ''University of North Texas.''] Retrieved 2017-02-10.</ref>

Although ultimately futile, the French fought according to the tactical doctrine contemporaries called ''[[Petty warfare|la Petite guerre]]'', or today's [[Guerrilla warfare|guerilla warfare]]. The numerical inferiority of the French forces in North America made it impossible to fight a war according to standard European tactics. Hence the French to a large extent made use of indigenous allies (see below). The small French population; New France's dependence on the [[fur trade]], mutually profitable for both FrenchmenFrench and Nativeindigenous Americanspeoples; and the common threat from the British colonies, made the indigenous peoples willing allies. The [[Battle of the Monongahela]] was the largest achievement of the petty warfare tactics. But at the end of the French and Indian War British numerical superiority became overwhelming, in spite of almost the whole male population of Canada being mobilized, and standard European tactics won the day and the war.<ref>Rene Chartrand (1993-20001993–2000). ''Canadian Military History.'' Montreal: Art Global, vol. 1, pp. 74-76, 88-91, 94-95; vol. 2., pp. 20, 32.</ref>

When war began, the several colonies organized their own military forces, provincial troops, through temporary enlistments. The soldiers came from the lower orders of society, which did not strengthen their reliability or efficiency. [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts Bay]], [[Province of New York|New York]] and [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]] usually mobilized large contingents, while the southern colonies always very reluctantly contributed to the imperial cause. The British Army did not have high opinions of the battleworthiness of the provincial troops, with the exception of the [[Roger's Rangers|ranger units]]. During conjoint operations the provincial troops were subject to the very strict British [[Articles of War]]. The officers of the provincial troops had lower relative rank than the officers of the regular army; a provincial [[field officer]] ranked as a senior British captain, although these officers were members of the colonial elite, often members of colonial [[legislature]]s. Disputes concerning rank and precedent between regular and provincial officers were common. Junior provincial officers were often popular militia officers, who easily could recruit a company of men.<ref name="Stacey">C.P. Stacey (1974). "The British Forces in North America during the Seven Years' War." ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press, vol. 3: xxiv-xxxxxiv–xxx.</ref><ref name="Wright">[http://www.colonialwarsct.org/colonial_military_experience.htm Robert K.Wright Jr, "Colonial Military Experience." ''The Society of Colonial Wars in Connecticut.''] Retrieved 2017-02-11.</ref>

The [[Compagnies Franches de la Marine]], the colonial marines, contained the core of the military forces of [[New France]]. It was only during the [[French and Indian War]] that units from the [[History of the French Army|Royal French Army]] were transferred to Canada. The colonial militia was more important than its counterpart in British America.

The French colonies were administratedadministered through the secretary of state for the navy, and naval troops garrisoned New France. The French marines were organized into independent companies called ''Compagnies franches.'' During the French and Indian War, naval gunner-bombardier companies were also stationed in North America. The other ranks of the marines were enlisted in France, but the officer corps became increasingly Canadian through recruitment of officers' sons. All promotions were by merit; purchase of commissions was prohibited. The British rangers were an attempt to replicate the tactics of the French colonial marines. The [[Swiss regiment de Karrer]] also operated under the Royal French Navy. Its depot was in [[Rochefort (Charente-Maritime)|Rochefort]], but its companies served in North American and the Caribbean.<ref name="Stacey"/><ref name="Eccles"/><ref name="Chartrand">René Chartrand (1984). ''The French Soldier in Colonial America.'' Bloomfield, Ont.: Museum Restoration Service.</ref><ref name="Morton">Desmond Morton (1985). ''A Military History of Canada.'' Edmonton: Hurtig, pp. 18-23.</ref>

In 1754 six battalions from the regiments [[Régiment d'Artois|Artois]], [[Régiment de Béarn|Béarn]], [[Régiment de Bourgogne|Bourgogne]], [[Régiment de Guyenne|Guyenne]], [[Régiment de Languedoc|Languedoc]], and [[Régiment de la Reine|La Reine]] were transferred to New France. In 1757 two additional battalions arrived from [[Régiment Royal Roussillon|Royal Roussilon]] and [[Régiment La Sarre|La Sarre]], followed the next year by two battalions from [[Régiment de Berry|de Berry]]. An artillery company was also sent over the Atlantic.<ref name="Eccles">W. J. Eccles (1974). "The French forces in North America during the Seven Years' War." ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press, vol. 3: xv-xxiiixv–xxiii.</ref>

==IndianIndigenous allies==

The [[Iroquois|Iroquois League]] played an important strategic role in the struggle between Britain and France over northeastern America because of its location east and south of [[Lake Ontario]]. The League's aggressive military and commercial policy gave the five Iroquois nations control over large parts of the country, forcing many smaller IndianIndigenous nations into submission. The Iroquois used the [[Covenant Chain]] joinedto the Iroquoisjoin with the colony of New York and other British colonies in a compact that generally benefitted the parties and ultimately was disastrous for France.<ref name="Leach"/>

France recognized the independence of the IndianIndigenous tribes while claiming sovereignty over their territory at the same time, as well as the right to plead the cause of their IndianIndigenous allies in the face of other European powers. The French allies accepted this [[protectorate]] since it permitted self-government and a traditional lifestyle. The [[Mi'kmaq]] and the [[Abenaki]] accepted [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] as it confirmed their brotherhoodalliance with the French inagainst theBritish strugglecolonists againstin theNova BritishScotia. Alongside the Mi'kmaq and the Abenaki, France's chief allies were the ''indiens domiciliés'' (resident Indians) who lived at the Catholic missions in New France. ReligiousMany reasonsof andthese thewere needMohawk forfrom atheir refugeearlier territory in central New York, but there were also members of other tribes from theNew EnglishEngland. Fleeing attacks by New England colonists during and after King Philip's attackWar motivated their dislocationdisplacement to French territory. At the end of the French and Indian wars, all resident IndiansIndigenous peoples were joined in the confederation of the [[Seven Nations of Canada]].<ref>[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-french-relations/ "Indigenous-French Relations." ''Canadian Encyclopedia.''] Retrieved 2017-02-12.</ref>

===IndianIndigenous-White warfare===

A pattern of warfare emerged during the clashes between the European colonial powers and the American IndiansIndigenous peoples which characterized the four major French and IndianIndigenous wars. The complex network of relations was fundamental between some IndianIndigenous tribes and some colonies, the IndianIndigenous tribes becoming the allies of the colonial powers. These alliances were a result of the economic ties that had been formed by the [[fur trade]] and by the IndianIndigenous tribes' need for allies against their IndianIndigenous rivals. The warfare included the widespread and escalating abuse of civilians on all sides, in which settlements were attacked, both Colonial and IndianIndigenous, the residents killed or abducted, and houses and crops burned.<ref name="Leach"/>

*[[FormerMilitary colonieshistory and territories inof Canada]]

*[[Military history of Novathe ScotiaUnited Kingdom]]

*[[AmericanSecond IndianHundred WarsYears' War]]

*Robert Leckie, ''A Few Acres of Snow: The Saga of the French and Indian Wars''</cite> Wiley & Son; Hardcover: {{ISBN|0-471-24690-5}}; Paperback: {{ISBN|0-471-39020-8}}