Khmer Air Force: Difference between revisions

|country= {{flag|Cambodia (1953–1970)|name=First Kingdom of Cambodia}}<br>{{flag|Khmer Republic|name=CambodiaKhmer Republic}} (Cambodia)

|allegiance= [[Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–1970)|1st Kingdom of Cambodia]] (1954-1970)<br>[[Khmer Republic]] (1970-1975)

|type= [[Air Forceforce]]

|command_structure= [[Royal Khmer Armed Forces]] (1954-1970)<br>[[Khmer National Armed Forces]] (1970-1975)

During the first years of its existence, the AVRK received assistance from France – which under the terms of the November 1953 treaty of independence had the right to keep a [[French Military Mission in Cambodia|military mission]] in Cambodia –, the United States, Japan, [[Israel]], and [[West Germany]],<ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 224.</ref> who provided training programs, technical aid, and additional aircraft. The French delivered in 1954–55 fifteen [[Morane-Saulnier Alcyon|Morane-Saulnier MS 733 Alcyon]] three-seat basic trainers,<ref name="shortfinals.wordpress.com">[http://shortfinals.wordpress.com/2013/06/29/morane-saulnier-ms-733-alcyon-a-trainer-with-gallic-flair/ "Morane-Saulnier MS.733 Alcyon – a trainer with Gallic flair!".] ''Shortfinal's Blog'', 29 June 2013. Retrieved: 1 January 2014.</ref> and Japan delivered three [[Fletcher FD-25|Fletcher FD-25 Defender]] single-seater [[ground-attack aircraft]] and three Fletcher FD-25B two-seat trainers,<ref>Grandolini, ''Air Enthusiast'' 37 (1988), p. 39.</ref><ref name="SIPRI Arms Transfers Database">[http://armstrade.sipri.org/arms_trade/trade_register.php SIPRI Arms Transfers Database]</ref> whilst deliveries by the United States [[Military Assistance Advisory Group]] (USU.S. MAAG) aid program – established since June 1955 at Phnom Penh – of fourteen [[North American T-6 Texan|North American T-6G Texan]] trainers, eight [[L-19 Bird Dog|Cessna L-19A Bird Dog]] observation aircraft, three [[de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver|de Havilland Canada DHC L-20 Beaver]] liaison aircraft,<ref>Grandolini, ''Air Enthusiast'' 37 (1988), p. 40.</ref> seven [[Douglas C-47 Skytrain]] transports (soon joined by with two additional C-47 transports bought from Israel) and six [[Curtiss C-46 Commando|Curtiss C-46F Commando]] transports<ref name="SIPRI Arms Transfers Database"/> allowed the AVRK to acquire a limited light strike capability, as well as improving its own reconnaissance and transportation capabilities.

Although Cambodia was theoretically forbidden of having fighter jets under the terms of the [[July 1955]] [[Geneva Accords (1954)|Geneva Accords]], the AVRK did receive its first jet trainers in September 1961 from France, in the form of four [[Fouga Magister|Potez CM.170R Fouga Magister]]s modified locally in 1962 to accept a pair of [[M1919M2 Browning#.50 machineBrowning gunAN/M2|AN/M2 7,62mm aircraft gunguns]]s and under-wing rocket rails. By the end of the year, the AVRK aligned 83 airframes of American, Canadian and French origin, though mostly were World War II-vintage obsolescent types well past their prime – USU.S. MAAG advisors often described the AVRK at the time as an "aerial museum" – and training accidents were far from uncommon.

The baptism of fire of the AVRK came the following year when its FD-25 Defenders and T-6G Texan armed trainers supported Khmer Royal Army troops in [[Takéo Province]] fighting a cross-border incursion by Vietnamese militiamen from the [[Hòa Hảo]] militant sect fleeing persecution from the neighbouring [[Republic of Vietnam]].<ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 213.</ref> The obsolete Texans and Defenders were eventually replaced in August that year by sixteen [[North American T-28 Trojan|North American T-28D Trojan]] trainers converted to the fighter-bomber role.<ref>Nalty, Neufeld and Watson, ''An Illustrated Guide to the Air War over Vietnam'' (1982), p. 114.</ref> Also under the USU.S. MAAG program, the AVRK received in March 1963 four [[Cessna T-37 Tweet|Cessna T-37B Tweet]] jet trainers;<ref>Love, Greer and Sewell, ''A-37/T-37 Dragonfly in action'' (1991), p. 16.</ref> however, unlike the Fougas provided earlier by the French, these airframes had no provision for weapon systems, since the Americans resisted Cambodian requests to arm them.<ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 214"/>

The Technical Group aligned the AVRK's support and technical branches, which comprised the [[Signals (military)|Communications]] ({{lang|fr|ComunicationsCommunications}}), [[Civil engineer]]s and [[Construction]] ({{lang|fr|Génie de l'Air/Construction}}), [[Flight engineer]]s ({{lang|fr|Mécaniciens Navigantes}}), Medical ({{lang|fr|Service de Santé}}, or simply {{lang|fr|Santé}}), Transportation ({{lang|fr|Train}} or {{lang|fr|Transport}}), and [[Military Fuel Service (France)|Military Fuel]]/[[Petrol, Oil and Lubricants]] – POL ({{lang|fr|Service de Essence}}) services.<ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), pp. 233–234.</ref>

In response to the [[1963 South Vietnamese coup|coup against President Ngô Đình Diệm]] in South Vietnam, Prince Sihanouk cancelled on November 20, 1963, all American aid, and on January 15, 1964, the US MAAG program was suspended when Cambodia adopted a neutrality policy,<ref>Chinnery, ''The rise of the Eagle Flights'' in ''Vietnam, the air war over south-east Asia'' (2016), p. 26.</ref> so the AVRK continued to rely on French military assistance but at the same time turned to Australia, [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], the Soviet Union and China for aircraft and training. Already in 1961, Khmer student pilots returning from previous training stints in France had been sent to the USSR for conversion training in Soviet fighter jet types, and in November 1963 the Soviets delivered an initial batch of three [[MiG-17|MiG-17F]] fighter jets, one [[MiG-15|MiG-15UTI]] jet trainer and one [[Yakovlev Yak-18|Yakovlev Yak-18 Max]] light trainer. France continued to deliver aircraft to Cambodia in 1964–65, supplying sixteen night attack [[Douglas A-1 Skyraider|Douglas AD-4N Skyraider]]s and six [[Dassault MD 315 Flamant|Dassault MD 315R Flamant]] light transports, soon followed by more Alouette II and [[Aérospatiale Alouette III|Sud Aviation SA-316B Alouette III]] light helicopters and ten [[Socata Horizon|Gardan GY-80 Horizon]] light trainers, which replaced the obsolete MS 733 Alcyons. The Yugoslavians provided at the time four [[UTVA-60|UTVA-60AT1]] utility transports,<ref>Jan Forsgren, "[http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/waf/aa-eastasia/cambodia/cam-af1-aircraft.htm Aviation Royale Khmere/Khmer Air Force Aircraft]". ''[http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/index.html Aeroflight] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307230347/http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/index.html |date=2010-03-07 }}''. 22 April 2007.</ref><ref>Grandolini, ''Air Enthusiast'' 37 (1988), p. 43.</ref> whilst the USSR delivered one [[Ilyushin Il-14]] and eight [[Antonov An-2 Colt]] transports, and China sent one Chinese-built [[Shenyang J-5|FT-5]] jet trainer, ten [[Shenyang J-5]] fighter jets, and three [[Nanchang CJ-6|Nanchang BT-6/PT-6]] light trainers.<ref name="SIPRI Arms Transfers Database"/> Not to be outdone, the Soviets delivered in April 1967 a second batch of five MiG-17F jets<ref name="Bowra, 1989 p. 19"/> and two [[Mil Mi-4|Mil Mi-4 Hound]] light helicopters.<ref name=" Military Helicopter Market 1971 pg. 576">{{cite web | last = | first = | author-link = | title = Military Helicopter Market 1971 pg. 576 | publisher = | date = | url = http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1971/1971%20-%202086.html| doi = | access-date = 2013-04-03}}</ref>

Consequently, and in accordance with Cambodia's neutralist foreign policy, few combat missions were flown. AVRK activities were restricted to air patrols in order to protect Cambodia's airspace from the numerous incursions made by [[USUnited States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] (USAF), [[Republic of Vietnam Air Force]] (RVNAF) and [[Royal Thai Air Force]] (RTAF) aircraft. In 1962, during a period of heightened tension with [[Thailand]] over the disputed [[Preah Vihear Temple]] in the [[Dângrêk Mountains]] border area, the C-47 transports of the Liaison and Transport Group (GLT) dropped at night three planeloads of paratroopers over the [[Choam Khsant District|Choam Ksan district]] in [[Preah Vihear Province]], in a show of force intended to intimidate the Thai government. The AVRK C-47 transports resumed the same role again in 1964, when they carried out another battalion-sized parachute drop over two days near [[Samraong (town)|Samrong]] in [[Oddar Meanchey|Oddar Meanchey Province]] along the Thai border,<ref>Conboy and Bowra, ''The War in Cambodia 1970-75'' (1989), p. 40, Plate A3.</ref><ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), pp. 176; 214.</ref> and landing strips were improvised at Siem Reap and [[Battambang]] for the C-47 and An-2 transports supplying the ARK troops. Detachments of MiG-17F jets and AD-4N Skyraiders were also deployed at these locations after the intrusion of RTAF airplanes into the Cambodian airspace, but both sides prudently avoided confrontation and there were no incidents. A more serious clash occurred on March 21, 1964, when a patrol of two AVRK T-28D fighter-bombers penetrated 3.22 km (over 2 Mi) into South Vietnam and shot down an L-19 light aircraft in retaliation for a RVNAF strike into Cambodia, killing both the Vietnamese pilot and the American observer.<ref name="Bowra, 1989 p. 19"/><ref>Adcock, Greer and Sewell, ''T-28 Trojan in action'' (1989), p. 32.</ref><ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 214">Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 214.</ref><ref>Jan Forsgren, ''Cambodia: Khmer Air Force History 1970-1975'' (Part 1) - http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/waf/aa-eastasia/cambodia/cam-af-history1.htm</ref>

To patrol its main facilities and aircraft in Pochentong against possible acts of sabotage or enemy attacks, the AVRK command raised in 1967–68 an airfield security unit, the '''Air Fusiliers Battalion''' ({{lang|fr|Bataillon de Fusiliers de l'Air}} – BFA). Similar in function to the [[RAF Regiment|British RAF Regiment]], the BFA was organized as a [[light infantry]] unit comprising a battalion headquarters (HQ), three company HQs and three rifle companies maintained primarily for airfield security duties and static defence. Permanently allocated at Pochentong airbase and commanded by AVRK [[Major (rank)|Major]] [[Sou Chhorn]], the battalion fielded some 200-300 airmen armed with obsolete French-made [[bolt-action rifle]]s, [[sub-machine guns]] and [[light machine guns]].<ref name="autogenerated218">Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 218.</ref>

In the wake of the [[Cambodian coup of 1970|March 1970 coup]], the Royal Cambodian Aviation was re-designated '''Khmer National Aviation''' ({{lang|fr|Aviation nationale khmère}}; AVNK), though it remained under army command. Colonel [[Keu Pau Ann]] was replaced as the AVNK Chief-of-Staff by his deputy, [[Major (rank)|Major]] (promptly promoted to [[lieutenant colonel]]) [[So Satto]], with Major [[Penn Randa]] becoming deputy chief-of-staff for tactical operations and Major [[Ea Chhong]] the deputy chief-of-staff for logistics. After securing material support from the United States, South Vietnam, and Thailand, the new Khmer National Aviation immediately commenced combat operations, and embarked on an ambitious reorganisation and expansion programmeprogram. Shortly after the coup, however, the [[French Military Mission in Cambodia|French military mission]] suspended all the cooperation with the Cambodian armed forces, thus depriving the AVNK of vital training and technical assistance. China and the Soviet Union also severed their military assistance programs, which resulted in serious maintenance problems for its Shenyang and MiG fighter jets.<ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 216">Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 216.</ref>

The Cambodian Air Force was reborn on June 8, 1971, when it was made a separated command from the Army and thus became the third independent branch of the FANK. This new status was later confirmed on December 15, when the AVNK officially changed its name to '''Khmer Air Force''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Armée de l'air khmère''; AAK), or '''KAF'''. Promoted to Colonel, So Satto remained at the helm of the new Khmer Air Force and immediately began implementing an expansion programmeprogram. To better coordinate USAF and RVNAF air support, the KAF Command established that same month at Pochentong an '''Air Operations Centre – AOC''' ({{lang|fr|Centre des opérations aériennes}} – COA) headed by Lt. Col. [[Norodom Baley]], who had previously attended a tactical air course in West Germany during the early 1960s.<ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), pp. 220; 224, note 14.</ref> Starting from scratch, the KAF received a new influx of US-made aircraft under the auspices of the American [[Military Equipment Delivery Team, Cambodia]] (MEDTC) assistance program. Among the most effective additions were two [[Douglas AC-47 Spooky|Douglas AC-47D Spooky]] gunships turned over to Cambodia in June 1971, which were initially used for night surveillance and defense operations at Pochentong Airbase, in order to deter further PAVN sapper attacks.<ref>Davis and Greer, ''Gunships, A Pictorial History of Spooky'' (1982), pp. 13–14.</ref><ref name="Bowra, 1989 p. 20"/><ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), pp. 217–218.</ref> Nationalist Chinese advisors and engineers from [[Taiwan]] also assisted the KAF ground technicians at Pochentong in the rebuilding of former AVNK airframes damaged in the January raid, enabling some transport planes and helicopters to be repaired and returned quickly to flying condition.

By the end of the year, the KAF's inventory now included sixteen T-28D fighter-bombers, twenty-four Cessna O-1D reconnaissance/observation light aircraft,<ref name="fiwaf74 p. 171">Wheeler, ''Flight International'' 15 August 1974, p. 171.</ref> nineteen C-47 transports, five [[Cessna 185 Skywagon|U-17]] light utility aircraft, nine [[Cessna T-41 Mescalero|Cessna T-41D Mescalero]] trainers, eleven Bell UH-1D transports,<ref name="Gunston, 1981 p. 18">Gunston, ''An Illustrated Guide to Military Helicopters'' (1981), p. 18.</ref><ref name="SIPRI Arms Transfers Database"/> sixteen [[De Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter|U-1A Otter]] liaison aircraft, three AC-47D Spooky gunships,<ref name="Bowra, 1989 p. 20"/> and one [[Douglas C-47 Skytrain|EC-47D]] [[Signals intelligence|SIGINT]] aircraft.<ref name="SIPRI Arms Transfers Database"/> Col. So Satto also requested from the United States [[Northrop F-5|Northrop F-5A]] [[light fighter]]s to replace the destroyed Shenyang, MiG and Fouga jets, but the USU.S. government turned down the request and offered in alternative some [[North American F-86 Sabre|North American F-86F Sabrejets]] on the verge of retirement from the RTAF. However, an inspection made by a team of Cambodian technicians sent to Thailand revealed that the airframes were no longer in flyable condition, so the KAF Command rejected the proposal altogether. Unable to acquire new fighter jets, the KAF was left without air-to-air capacity for the remainder of the war. An additional offer of some [[Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar]] transports which had previously seen service with the RVNAF was equally turned down by the Cambodians. The Australians delivered in January 1972 six silvered C-47 transports for training purposes, which were posted to the KAF Air Academy in Battambang.<ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 219"/><ref>[http://www.adf-serials.com/2a65.shtml ADF Serials list of Australian military DC-2s/DC-3s/C-47s] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607213106/http://www.adf-serials.com/2a65.shtml |date=2011-06-07 }} retrieved 2010-06-19</ref>

New airbases were laid down near the provincial capitals of Battambang, [[Kampong Cham Airport|Kampong Cham]] and [[Kampong Chhnang Airport|Kampong Chhnang]], and near the [[Khmer National Navy]]'s ({{lang|fr|Marine Nationale Khmère}} – MNK) [[Ream Naval Base]].<ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), pp. 217; 224, note 4.</ref> Later in the war, secondary airfields and assorted helipads were temporally set up at [[Kampot (town)|Kampot]], [[Oudong]], [[Kampong Thom (city)|Kampong Thom]], and [[Meanchey District|Stung Mean Chey]] near Phnom Penh.<ref>Sutsakhan, ''The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse'' (1980), p. 165.</ref>

[[Kamphaeng Saen District|Kamphaeng Saen]] Flight Training School in [[Nakhon Pathom Province]] and by American advisors of Detachment 1, 56th Special Operations Wing at [[Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base|Udorn]], [[U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield|U-Tapao]] and [[Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base|Takhli]] airbases in Thailand, while others were dispatched to attend observer courses at [[Bien Hoa Air Base]], South Vietnam. A small number also went to train with the [[USUnited States Navy|U.S. Navy]] at the [[Naval Air Station Pensacola]], [[Florida]] and attended courses at the [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) [[RAAF Base East Sale|East Sale Airbase]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], Australia.

In the mist of this reorganisation, the Khmer Air Force's own inventory continued to expand via the MEDTC during the following year. Under the Foreign Military Sales program between January and November 1972, the KAF took delivery of fourteen [[Helio AU-24 Stallion|AU-24A Stallion]] mini-gunships,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/au-24.htm|title=AU-24A Helio Stallion}}</ref> fifteen T-28D fighter-bombers, four AC-47D gunships, nineteen UH-1H helicopters, sixteen T-28B unarmed trainers in poor condition, and another four T-41D trainers. An important addition to the KAF, the AU-24A mini-gunships were assigned to a newly-raised '''Mini-gunship Squadron''' ({{lang|fr|Escadron AU-24}}) stationed at Pochentong, which broadened supply convoy escort operations on the lower Mekong-Bassac corridors. Such operations had been carried out in conjunction with the MNK since mid-1971, when the KAF began to provide air cover to MNK convoys with their AC-47D gunships.<ref name="Greer, 1982 pp. 63–64">Davis and Greer, ''Gunships, A Pictorial History of Spooky'' (1982), pp. 63–64.</ref><ref>Conboy and Bowra, ''The War in Cambodia 1970-75'' (1989), pp. 20–21.</ref><ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 219"/> Despite the slow improvements delivered by [[Brigadier General]] So Satto's expansion programmeprogram, the KAF's own combat capabilities remained low and because of plentiful USU.S. air support – used excessively by the Cambodian Army – was relegated to a minor role only.

This situation began to change in March 1973, when the Khmer Air Force suffered a setback after a pro-Sihanouk T-28D fighter-bomber pilot bombed the presidential palace and deserted. After ordering a complete stand-down of the KAF for three days, President Lon Nol dismissed Brig. Gen. So Satto and replaced him by his deputy, Col. Penn Randa (promptly promoted to Brigadier general), who immediately began to enforce new programmesprograms to improve the KAF. The most important of these plans was the establishment of a KAF '''Direct Air Support Centre – DASC''' ({{lang|fr|Centre de soutien aérien direct}} – CSAD). Co-located at the FANK '''Combined Operations Centre – COC''' ({{lang|fr|Centre d'opérations combinées}}), the DASC was given responsibility for gathering current targeting information from US aircraft and Cambodian Army units in the field, and passing on to the KAF. However, this new concept was resisted by the commander of the KAF Air Operations Centre – who was unwilling to turn over responsibility to the newly-created DASC –, by continuing to feed the KAF with pre-planned strike co-ordinates. In practice, the Cambodian Army Command had little faith in the ability of the KAF's inexperienced forward air controllers to accurately spot targets and direct close air support, leaving the DASC to function primarily as a relay between the Army Headquarters in Phnom Penh and USU.S. aircraft.<ref name="Bowra, 1989 p. 20"/><ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 220">Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 220.</ref>

In May 1973, the KAF received five of an eventual eight [[Fairchild C-123 Provider|Fairchild C-123K Provider]] transports on paper,<ref>Beck, "Database: Fairchild C-123 Provider" (2022), p. 123.</ref> which were employed extensively alongside the C-47 transports of the 1st Transport Squadron on air-drop resupply operations. That same month, under an accelerated delivery programmeprogram named [[Project Nimble Voyage]], the Americans gave the KAF ten UH-1G helicopter gunships, which were assigned to the Helicopter Squadron. Five of the machines were deployed to Battambang Airbase and the other five helicopters were stationed at Pochentong, being used extensively alongside the AC-47D and AU-24A gunships in the Mekong-Bassac convoy support role.<ref>Conboy and Bowra, ''The War in Cambodia 1970-75'' (1989), p. 43.</ref><ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 220"/> Under [[Project Flycatcher]], an improvement programmeprogram for the KAF, the Americans delivered twelve T-28D Trojans, six UH-1H helicopters, five C-123K Providers and a smaller number of C-47 transports and O-1D Bird Dogs, later followed by a single AU-24A mini-gunship and twenty-four Cessna T-37B Tweet jet trainers before the programmeprogram was officially terminated on June 30, 1973. This was to be the last official US delivery of aircraft to Cambodia (though secret deliveries of a small number of T-28D aircraft continued under the auspices of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] until January 1975), which nevertheless significantly improved the combat capability of the KAF.<ref name="aeroflight1970">Jan Forsgren, ''Cambodia: Khmer Air Force History 1970-1975'' (Part 2) - http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/waf/aa-eastasia/cambodia/cam-af-history2.htm</ref><ref>Chinnery, ''The age of austerity'' in ''Vietnam, the air war over south-east Asia'' (2016), p. 92.</ref>

At the same time, the KAF Command continued to expand co-ordination with the Cambodian Army, despite an initial reluctance on the part of Army field commanders, who remained sceptical of their Air Force's capabilities. An '''Air-Ground Operations School – AGOS''' ({{lang|fr|École des opérations air-sol}} – EOAS) was opened in May to train forward air guides (FAGs) from the Army and in July, the KAF began providing forward air controllers to the Army's new '''Artillery Fire Co-ordination Centre – AFCC''' ({{lang|fr|Centre de coordination des tirs d'artillerie}} – CCTA) that would relay targets from Army field commanders on the ground to the DASC.<ref name="Bowra, 1989 p. 20"/><ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 220"/> On August 15, 1973, a ceasefire came into effect in [[Indochina]] and USU.S. tactical and strategic air support was terminated, with the Khmer Air Force assuming full responsibility for all air operations in Cambodia. With the Khmer Rouge guerrillas controlling large parts of the countryside, the [[Khmer National Armed Forces]] were fighting an up-hill battle.

In an effort to further boost the KAF's capabilities, the Americans initiated three assistance programmesprograms. The first one, [[Operation Rotorhead Express]], started in June 1974 when a USU.S. Army team arrived at Pochentong to give a one-time repair to the KAF UH-1 helicopter fleet. This was followed in January 1975 by [[Operation Flycatcher]] (not to be confused with the earlier namesake USU.S. aircraft delivery programmeprogram), a similar USAF effort directed at the KAF's T-28D fighter-bombers carried out by a USAF team also at Pochentong. That same month, a USAF Mobile Training Team began in Thailand a training programmeprogram intended to make the KAF airlift wing self-sufficient.<ref name="autogenerated22"/><ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 222">Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 222.</ref>

By January 1975 KAF's strength had peaked to 10,000 Officers and airmen (including airwomen) under the command of Brig. Gen. [[Ea Chhong]], equipped with a total inventory of 211 aircraft of several types distributed amongst the Tactical Air Group squadrons as follows:<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)">Sutsakhan, ''The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse'' (1980), p. 183, Appendix C (Air Force Item).</ref>

*The '''1st Fighter Squadron''' aligned sixty-four T-28D Trojan fighter-bombers.<ref>Taylor and Munson, ''Jane's Pocket Book of Major Combat Aircraft'' (1973), p. 179.</ref><ref>Krivinyi, ''World Military Aviation'' (1977), p. 178.</ref><ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/><ref>Fitzsimons, ''The Defenders: A Comprehensive Guide to Warplanes of the USA'' (1988), p. 137.</ref>

*The '''Mini-gunship Squadron''' had fourteen AU-24A Stallion mini-gunships.<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/><ref name="Greer, 1982 pp. 63–64"/>

*The '''Forward Air Controller Squadron''' operated forty-five Cessna O-1D Bird Dog reconnaissance/observation light aircraft,<ref name="fiwaf74 p. 171"/><ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/> sixteen U-1A Otter liaison aircraft<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/> and five U-17 light utility aircraft.<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/>

*The '''1st Transport Squadron''' aligned twenty-one Fairchild C-123K Provider transports,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/><ref>Beck, "Database: Fairchild C-123 Provider" (2022), p. 123.</ref> twenty-three Douglas C-47 Skytrain transports,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/> fourteen Douglas AC-47D Spooky gunships,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/><ref>Davis and Greer, ''Gunships, A Pictorial History of Spooky'' (1982), pp. 13–14.</ref> and one EC-47D SIGINT aircraft.

*The '''Helicopter Squadron''' had ten Bell UH-1G gunships,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/> forty-six Bell UH-1D/H transports,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/><ref name="Gunston, 1981 p. 18"/> three Sud Aviation SA 316B Alouette III light helicopters,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/> and two Sikorsky H-34 Choctaw utility transports.<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/>

*The '''Advanced Training Squadron''' of the Air Force Academy at Battambang Airbase operated six silvered C-47 trainers,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/> sixteen T-28B light trainers,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/> ten Gardan GY-80 Horizon light trainers,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/> twenty-two Cessna T-41D Mescalero trainers,<ref name="Sutsakhan, 1980 p. 183 (Air Force Item)"/> and twenty-four Cessna T-37B Tweet jet trainers.<ref name="aeroflight1970"/><ref> name="Sutsakhan, ''The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse'' (1980), p. 183, Appendix C (Air Force Item).<"/ref>

Following several attacks on Cambodian airfields early in the war, the KAF Security troops underwent a major reorganization by mid-1971. The battered BFA at Pochentong was expanded accordingly from a single rifle battalion of three companies, to a full security regiment aligning three battalions, receiving the designation of '''1st Air Fusiliers Regiment''' ({{lang|fr|1er Regiment de Fusiliers de l'Air}} – 1 RFA). Between July 1971 and December 1972, Air Force battalions were rotated through intensive infantry training courses manned by the [[USU.S. Army-Vietnam Individual Training Program]] (UITG) in South Vietnam to upgrade their combat capabilities, with selected airmen receiving some specialized training as well – by early 1973, 1 RFA aligned two rifle battalions plus one specialized battalion trained for search-and-rescue (SAR) missions, crash-site recovery and VIP protection. The KAF Security command under Colonel [[Sou Chhorn]] was augmented in 1974 when a second unit was brought to strength at Kampong Cham Airbase, which became the '''2nd Air Fusiliers Regiment''' (French: ''2éme Regiment de Fusiliers de l'Air'' – 2 RFA).<ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), pp. 218; 224, note 9.</ref> 2 RFA battalions were trained in-country by the [[Khmer Special Forces]] at the Ream Infantry Training Centre near Kampong Som.<ref name="McCouaig, 1991 p. 15">Conboy and McCouaig, ''South-East Asian Special Forces'' (1991), p. 15.</ref> By April 1975, KAF Security troops totalled some 1,600 airmen organized in six light infantry battalions, equipped with an assortment of outdated and modern USU.S. and captured Soviet or Chinese small-arms.<ref>Conboy and Bowra, ''The War in Cambodia 1970-75'' (1989), p. 18.</ref>

*On October 7, 1972, the PAVN hit Phnom Penh once again with a spectacular sapper attack, in which a commando force of 103 men from the [[367th Sapper Regiment]] raided the Cambodian Army armoured cavalry headquarters located at the [[PhnomRCAF Penh OlympicOld Stadium|OlympicOld Stadium]] in the northern outskirts of the City.<ref>Conboy and Bowra, ''The War in Cambodia 1970-75'' (1989), p. 37.</ref><ref>Conboy and McCouaig, ''South-East Asian Special Forces'' (1991), pp. 53–54.</ref><ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 194.</ref><ref>Serra, ''L'armée nord-vietnamienne, 1954–1975 (2e partie)'' (2012), p. 38.</ref> The PAVN raiders even managed to capture seven [[M113 armored personnel carrier]]s and drove them out in column into the capital's streets, causing panic among the inhabitants. Initially taken by surprise, Cambodian Army troops took several hours to dominate the situation, and urgent air support was requested. The Khmer Air Force response came in the form of two AC-47D gunships whose firepower succeeded in disabling all the vehicles, thus stopping the column before it could reach the city's centre, killing in the process 83 members of the sapper force and scattered the rest.<ref>Conboy, Bowra, and McCouaig, ''The NVA and Viet Cong'' (1992), pp. 12–13.</ref><ref>Grandolini, ''Armor of the Vietnam War (2): Asian Forces'' (1998), pp. 65–66.</ref>

Although regarded by most outside observers as the most professional branch of the Cambodian armed forces, the Khmer Air Force was seriously handicapped throughout its existence by several key problems that stood in the way of its efficiency. Being an all-volunteer, technically-proficient service, the KAF was long plagued by shortages of skilled pilots, experienced flight instructors, and support personnel, coupled by the inconsistent quality of forward air controllers, pilot fatigue, inadequate training, lack of effective leadership – exacerbated by constant changes in command – and its inability to organize itself. Other chronic problems included an unfocused inventory (at least, during the early stages of the war), inadequate maintenance of airframes, unsuitable airfields, and an insufficient night support capability.<ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 221"/> As with the Cambodian Army, the KAF faced severe budgetary restraints after USU.S. financial aid was slashed in 1973 and was riven by corruption – most of its transport aircraft regularly experienced landing gear problems since the aircrews often tended to accept paid transportation services, overloading their planes with unauthorized civilian passengers and cargo.<ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 12.</ref>

*On April 14, 1975, for the third time in the war, a defecting Cambodian pilot attempted an aerial assassination of the nation's chief executive. That morning, a T-28D fighter-bomber flown by Lt. Kiev Yoursawath, dropped four 250&nbsp;lb bombs over the FANK Joint General Staff Headquarters ({{lang|fr|État-Major Générale}} – EMG). Two landed about 60&nbsp;ft (about 19 m) from where the president of the State Presidium, [[Lieutenant general]] [[Sak Sutsakhan]], was chairing a cabinet meeting. Although the officials managed to escape unscathed, the bombs claimed the lives of seven peopleofficers and several[[Non-commissioned officer|NCOs]] and twenty others were injured.<ref>Sutsakhan, ''The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse'' (1980), p. 166.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/msg09009.html|title=April Fool's Day: On April 1, 1975}}</ref> The pilot then headed north and landed in one of the Khmer Rouge-controlled portions of Kampong Cham province.<ref name="autogenerated223"/>

The Khmer Air Force saw its aerial resupply capability severely curtailed late in the war, when on March 13, 1975, the Khmer Rouge hit Pochentong Airbase with [[Type 63 multiple rocket launcher|Chinese-made Type 63 107mm rockets]], which ignited an ammunition dump and destroyed a nearby storehouse used to pack and store air-drop cargo parachutes employed on resupply operations. The loss of their cargo parachute stocks deprived the KAF's C-47 and C-123K transports of the means to adequately support the isolated enclaves still held by Cambodian Army units, so the USU.S. government had to hire civilian contractors in order to carry out most of the outpost resupply drops within Cambodia.<ref name="Conboy, 2011 p. 222"/>

Besides combat sorties, the KAF was also involved in last-minute evacuation efforts. On April 12, 1975, its T-28D fighter-bombers and UH-1 Helicopters provided air cover to [[Operation Eagle Pull]], the evacuation of the USU.S. Embassy staff. Most of the T-28D pilots involved in this operation were forced to land their planes in the main road leading to Pochentong's civilian airport and adjacent to the military airbase, since the latter's airstrip was under heavy artillery fire.<ref name="autogenerated223"/> The Air Force command also kept on stand-by seven UH-1H transport helicopters at an improvised helipad mounted on the grounds of the [[Olympic Stadium (Phnom Penh)|Phnom Penh Olympic Stadium]] in the ''Cércle Sportive'' complex, ready to evacuate key members of the government.<ref name="McCouaig, 1991 p. 15"/> However, three of the machines had to be abandoned due to technical malfunctions when the evacuation finally took place on the morning of April 17.<ref>Sutsakhan, ''The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse'' (1980), p. 169.</ref> Amongst the small group of high-profile evacuees who boarded the remaining four helicopters heading for Kampong Thom was the KAF commander Brig. Gen. [[Ea Chhong]].<ref>Sutsakhan, ''The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse'' (1980), pp. 169–171.</ref><ref name="autogenerated223">Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 223.</ref>

Despite their best efforts, the overstretched Khmer Air Force alone could not prevent the defeat of the Cambodian Army and stem the tide of the advancing Khmer Rouge forces. On April 16 KAF T-28D Trojans flew their last combat sortie by bombing the Air Force Control Centre and hangars at Pochentong upon its capture by insurgent units. After virtually expending their entire ordnance reserves, 97 aircraft – consisting of fifty T-28D fighter-bombers, thirteen UH-1D/H transports, twelve O-1D Bird Dogs, ten C-123K transports, seven AC-47D gunships, three AU-24A mini-gunships, nine C-47 transports, and three T-41D trainers<ref name="autogenerated22"/><ref name="autogenerated223"/> – escaped from Pochentong, Battambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Thom, Kampong Chhnang and Ream airbases and auxiliary airfields flown by their respective crews (with a small number of civilian dependents on board) to safe haven in neighbouring Thailand.<ref name="aeroflight1970"/><ref>Sutsakhan, ''The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse'' (1980), pp. 169–171.</ref> 

The rest of the KAF personnel that remained in Cambodia – including the male and female clerical staff, the ground technicians, some pilots, and those airmen serving on the 1st Air Fusiliers Regiment at Pochentong (who defended the Airbase until the very end)<ref>Sutsakhan, ''The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse'' (1980), p. 156.</ref> – had no choice but to surrender, with most of them being executed by the Khmer Rouge. The last stand of the Khmer Air Force took place at Kampong Cham Airbase, where the airmen of the 2nd Air Fusiliers Regiment continued to resist for another week despite the official capitulation order, until they ran out of ammunition. The airbase commander, together with his deputy, the local ground technicians and the airmen of the Security battalions were captured and reportedly executed in a gruesome manner.<ref name="autogenerated223"/> Later unconfirmed reports claim that a few qualified ex-KAF pilots and technicians escaped this fate by being pressed into service in the [[Air Force of the Kampuchea Liberation Army]] (AFKLA) of the new [[Democratic Kampuchea]] Regime to fly and maintain the remaining French- and US-made aircraft left behind.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}

The Khmer Rouge did managedmanage, though, to salvage at least twenty-two T-28D fighter-bombers, four GY-80 Horizon light trainers, twenty-four T-37B jet trainers, nineteen T-41D trainers, five U-17 light utility aircraft, seven C-123K transports, nine AU-24A mini-gunships, six AC-47D gunships, fourteen C-47 transports, twenty UH-1D/H and UH-1G helicopters, and three Alouette III light helicopters.<ref name="autogenerated223"/> Of the twelve T-28D Trojans operated by the Khmer Rouge's AFKLA at Ream Airbase, at least five were destroyed on the ground along with two C-47 and one C-46F transport aircraft when

[[USUnited States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] [[Lockheed AC-130|AC-130 gunship]]s and [[USUnited States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[Grumman A-6 Intruder|A-6A Intruder]] and [[LTV A-7 Corsair II|A-7E Corsair II]] attack jets bombed the facility during the [[Mayaguez incident]] on May 15, 1975.<ref>Chun, ''The Last Boarding Party: The USMC and the SS Mayaguez 1975'' (2011), pp. 47; 51.</ref><ref>Mersky, Crutch and Holmes, ''A-7 Corsair II Units 1975-91'' (2021), p. 14.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/waf/aa-eastasia/cambodia/cam-af1-aircraft.htm|title = Aviation Royale Khmere/Khmer Air Force Aircraft}}</ref> As for the other airframes, lack of trained pilots, poor maintenance and a chronic shortage of spare parts ensured that only a handful of these were still airworthy when the AFKLA was neutralized by the PAVN in February 1979 during the [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1983/1983%20-%201422.html|title= World Air Forces 1983 |page=358 |publisher= flightglobal.com |date=|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref>

Upon its formation in 1954, AVRK personnel received the [[French Army]]'s M1945 tropical working and service dress ({{lang|fr|Tenue de toile kaki clair Mle 1945}}), standard issue in the ARK, consisting of a light khaki cotton shirt and pants. Modelled after the WWII [[USUnited States Army|U.S. Army]] tropical "Chino" working dress, the shirt had two patch breast pockets closed by clip-cornered straight flaps and shoulder straps whilst the trousers featured two pleats at the front hips, side slashed pockets and an internal pocket at the back, on the right side. In alternative, the short-sleeved M1946 ({{lang|fr|Chemisette kaki clair Mle 1946}}) – which had two pleated patch breast pockets closed by pointed flaps – and the "Chino"-style M1949 ({{lang|fr|Chemisette kaki clair Mle 1949}}) khaki shirts could be worn with the matching M1946 khaki shorts ({{lang|fr|Culotte courte kaki clair Mle 1946}}) in hot weather.

In 1955–56, AVRK officers adopted a new distinctive [[blue-grey]] overseas dress uniform, consisting of a tunic and slacks modelled after the [[U.S. Air Force]] M1947 service dress. On active service, the blue dress uniform was worn with a light blue shirt and blue-grey tie, replaced on formal occasions by a white shirt and black tie. The American-style open-collar, four-buttoned tunic had two pleated breast pockets closed by pointed flaps and two unpleated pockets at the side closed by straight flaps (senior officers' tunics sometimes had their side pockets closed by pointed flaps instead). The front fly and pocket flaps were secured by gilt buttons bearing the standard FARK emblem, replaced after March 1970 by the FANK emblem; a short-sleeved light blue shirt was worn in lieu of the tunic on hot weather.

A light blue-grey working uniform, consisting of a shirt and pants whose cut followed that of the earlier M1945 tropical dress, was also adopted for all-ranks<ref>Conboy and Bowra, ''The War in Cambodia 1970–75'' (1989), p. 22.</ref> though AVRK ground personnel in the field often wore the standard ARK French all-arms M1947 drab green fatigues ({{lang|fr|Treillis de combat Mle 1947}}). Female personnel were issued light blue and working blue-grey short-sleeved blouses based on their male counterparts' versions, except that the blouses' front fly closed on the left side, and were worn with a matching blue-grey knee-length skirt.<ref>Conboy, ''FANK: A History of the Cambodian Armed Forces, 1970-1975'' (2011), p. 248.</ref> After March 1970, as part of the USU.S.-sponsored MAP re-equipment program, the AVNK was supplied with new American olive green tropical uniforms, the USU.S. Army [[OG-107]] utilities and the [[M1967 Jungle Utility Uniform]] for its ground personnel and airfield security battalions and pilot student cadets (EPKs) attending courses at the Battambang Air Academy, though they never replaced entirely the older French fatigue clothing.<ref>Conboy and Bowra, ''The War in Cambodia 1970–75'' (1989), p. 18.</ref> Olive green USU.S. [[M-1951 field jacket]]s were also issued to all-ranks.

Pilots were issued Khaki and Olive Green (OG) [[flight suit]]s, with both French and US patterns being worn. Privately purchased Thai camouflaged flight suits in "[[ERDL pattern|Highland]]" pattern were worn by Khmer Air Force [[Douglas AC-47 Spooky|Douglas AC-47D Spooky]] gunship aircrews on occasion, such as the members of the first contingent sent in May–June 1971 to Udorn Airbase in [[Thailand]] for gunship training.<ref>Davis and Greer, ''Gunships, A Pictorial History of Spooky'' (1982), p. 14.</ref><ref>Conboy and Bowra, ''The War in Cambodia 1970-75'' (1989), p. 43, Plate E1.</ref> A USU.S. Air Force survival mesh vest was usually worn with the flight suits after 1970.

Besides regulation headgear, unofficial Olive Green and camouflage [[baseball cap]]s (black or red embroidered versions were adopted by some Cambodian pilots who attended advanced courses abroad)<ref>Conboy and Bowra, ''The War in Cambodia 1970-75'' (1989), p. 24.</ref> and USU.S. "[[Boonie hat]]s" found their way into the KAF from the United States, [[Thailand]] and [[South Vietnam]], to which were soon added Cambodian-made copies. The pilot student cadets and the airmen serving in the airfield security battalions retained as service headgear the old M1946 khaki tropical beret worn with the miniature AVNK/KAF cap badge, andwhilst the latter were also issued steel helmets, in the form of the [[M1 helmet|USU.S. M-1]] and the [[Modèle 1951 helmet|French M1951 NATO]] ({{lang|fr|Casque modéle 1951 OTAN}}), standard issue in the ARK/ANK.

White and brown low laced leather shoes were prescribed to wear with either the white summer dress and the earlier AVRK khaki service/work uniform for all-ranks and, after 1956 black ones were required for Air Force officers wearing the new blue-grey officers' dress uniform on formal occasions. On service dress, all Air Force ground personnel wore brown leather USU.S. [[M-1943 Combat Service Boots]] and French M1953 "Rangers" ({{lang|fr|Rangers modéle 1953}}) or French canvas-and-rubber [[Pataugas]] tropical boots, and sandals; after March 1970, the KAF standardized on American M-1967 black leather and [[Jungle boot]]s, and [[South Vietnamese]]Canadian [[Bata Shoes|Bata tropical boots]] and [[South Vietnamese]] black canvas-and-rubber Indigenous Combat Boots, which replaced much of the older combat footwear.

*Albert Grandolini, "L'Aviation Royale Khmére: The first 15 years of Cambodian military aviation", ''[[Air Enthusiast]]'', No. 37, September–December 1988, pp.&nbsp;39–47. {{ISSN|0143-5450}}