Chewing gum: Difference between revisions

Chewing gum in many forms has existed since the [[Neolithic]] period. 5,000-year-old chewing gum made from [[birch tar|birch bark tar]], with tooth imprints, has been found in [[Kierikki]] in Finland. The tar from which the gums were made is believed to have antiseptic properties and other medicinal benefits.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6954562.stm "Student dig unearths ancient gum"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919041614/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6954562.stm |date=19 September 2017 }} [[BBC.co.uk]].</ref> It is chemically similar to petroleum tar and is in this way different from most other early gum.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fagernäs|first1=Leena|last2=Kuoppala|first2=Eeva|last3=Tiilikkala|first3=Kari|last4=Oasmaa|first4=Anja|title=Chemical Composition of Birch Wood Slow Pyrolysis Products|journal=Energy & Fuels|volume=26|issue=2|pages=1275–83|doi=10.1021/ef2018836|year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kekäläinen|first1=Timo|last2=Venäläinen|first2=Tapani|last3=Jänis|first3=Janne|date=17 July 2014|title=Characterization of Birch Wood Pyrolysis Oils by Ultrahigh-Resolution Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry: Insights into Thermochemical Conversion|journal=Energy & Fuels|volume=28|issue=7|pages=4596–602|doi=10.1021/ef500849z|issn=0887-0624}}</ref> The [[Mayans]] and [[Aztecs]] were the first to exploit the positive properties of gum;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smithsonian|first=Eeva|title=Brief History of Chewing Gum|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/a-brief-history-of-chewing-gum-61020195/|journal=Energy & Fuels|volume=26|issue=2|pages=1275–83|doi=10.1021/ef2018836|year=2012}}</ref> they used [[chicle]], a natural [[Natural gum|tree gum]], as a base for making a gum-like substance<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pubs.acs.org/cen/whatstuff/85/8532sci2.html|title=Chemical & Engineering News: Science & Technology – What's That Stuff? Chewing Gum|website=pubs.acs.org|access-date=9 December 2016}}</ref> and to stick objects together in everyday use. Forms of chewing gum were also chewed in [[Ancient Greece]]. The Ancient Greeks chewed [[Mastic (plant resin)|mastic gum]], made from the resin of the [[Pistacia lentiscus|mastic tree]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20130215115730/http://inventors.about.com/od/gstartinventions/a/gum.html "The History of Chewing Gum and Bubble Gum"] page of [http://wayback.archive-it.org/10702/20120916175411/http://inventors.about.com/ About.com Inventors].</ref> Mastic gum, like birch bark tar, has antiseptic properties and is believed to have been used to maintain oral health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimas|first1=Konstantinos S.|last2=Pantazis|first2=Panayotis|last3=Ramanujam|first3=Rama|date=1 October 2016|title=Review: Chios mastic gum: a plant-produced resin exhibiting numerous diverse pharmaceutical and biomedical properties|journal=In Vivo (Athens, Greece)|volume=26|issue=5|pages=777–85|issn=1791-7549|pmid=22949590}}</ref> Both chicle and mastic are tree resins. Many other cultures have chewed gum-like substances made from plants, grasses, and [[resin]]s.

|[[Ancient Greece]]

|[[Mastic tree(plant barkresin)]]

|[[Ancient Maya]]

|[[Ginseng]] plant roots

|[[Inuit]]

|[[Blubber]]

|[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]

|[[Sugar pine]] and [[spruce]] sap

|[[South AmericansAmerican]]s

|[[Coca leaves]]

|[[Betel nuts]]

|[[Kola nuts]]

|[[Tobacco leaves]]

Although chewing gum can be traced back to civilizations worldwide, the modernization and commercialization of this product mainly took place in the United States. The [[American Indians in the United States|American Indians]] chewed [[resin]] made from the [[sap]] of [[spruce]] trees.<ref>[http://beemansgum.org/history/chewing-gum/ "History Of Chewing Gum"] {{webarchive|url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110703061324/http://beemansgum.org/history/chewing-gum/ |date=3 July 2011 }} page of [http://www.beemansgum.org/ BeemarsGum.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100608190624/http://beemansgum.org/ |date=8 June 2010 }}.</ref> The [[New England]] settlers picked up this practice, and in 1848, [[John B. Curtis]] developed and sold the first commercial chewing gum called The State of Maine Pure Spruce Gum. In this way, the industrializing West, having forgotten about tree gums, rediscovered chewing gum through the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|First Americans]]. Around 1850 a gum made from [[paraffin wax]], a petroleum product, was developed and soon exceeded the spruce gum in popularity. To sweeten these early gums, the chewer would often make use of a plate of powdered sugar, which they would repeatedly dip the gum in to maintain sweetness.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/85/i40/Flavoring-Chewing-Gum.html|title=Flavoring Chewing Gum {{!}} Chemical & Engineering News|website=cen.acs.org|access-date=9 December 2016}}</ref> William F. Semple, a dentist from [[Mount Vernon, Ohio]], filed an early patent on chewing gum, patent number 98,304, on 28 December 1869.<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |number=98304A |inventor= William F. Semple |invent1= |invent2= |status= |title= Improved Chewing Gum |pubdate=1869-12-28 |gdate= |fdate= |pridate= |assign1= |assign2= |url=}}</ref> Semple's gum was intended to clean the teeth and strengthen the chewer's jaw. It was not a sweet treat; ingredients included chalk and powdered [[licorice]] root. Charcoal was also suggested as a "suitable" ingredient in the patent.<ref name=OHC>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/William_F._Semple |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623063519/http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/William_F._Semple |archive-date=23 June 2018 |title=William F. Semple |publisher=Ohio History Central (maintained by the [[Ohio Historical Society]]) |accessdate=July 17, 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Colgans Taffy Tolu.jpg|thumb|An image of a Colgan's Taffy Tolu Chewing Gum chromolithograph advertisement, {{Circa|1910}}]]The first flavored chewing gum was created in the 1860s by [[John Colgan (pharmacist)|John Colgan]], a Louisville, Kentucky, pharmacist. Colgan mixed with powdered sugar the aromatic flavoring [[Tolu balsam|tolu]], a powder obtained from an extract of the balsam tree (''[[Myroxylon]]''), creating small sticks of flavored chewing gum he named "Taffy Tolu".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=266&dat=19781222&id=xwgxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=m-AFAAAAIBAJ&pg=2115,7685650&hl=en|title=It's Flavored Chewing Gum: Taffy Tolu Invention Is Remembered|date=22 December 1978|newspaper=Kentucky New Era|location=Hopkinsville, Christian County, Kentucky|author=<!--Staff writer; George Hackett-->|access-date=8 September 2015}}</ref> Colgan also led the way in the manufacturing and packaging of [[chicle]]-based chewing gum, derived from ''[[Manilkara chicle]]'', a tropical evergreen tree. He licensed a patent for automatically cutting chips of chewing gum from larger sticks: US 966,160 "Chewing Gum Chip Forming Machine" 2 August 1910<ref>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US966160A/en?q=colgan&q=gum|title=Web-cutting attachment for wrapping-machines|access-date=8 September 2015}}</ref> and a patent for automatically cutting wrappers for sticks of chewing gum: US 913,352 "Web-cutting attachment for wrapping-machines" 23 February 1909<ref>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US913352A/en?q=colgan&q=gum|title=Web-cutting attachment for wrapping-machines|access-date=8 September 2015}}</ref> from Louisville, Kentucky, inventor James Henry Brady, an employee of the Colgan Gum Company.

|For taste and sensory appeal. Flavor components in gum exist in liquid, powder or [[Micro-encapsulation|micro-encapsulated]] forms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fona.com/sites/default/files/Flavor%20Encapsulation_October_2014_v2.pdf|title=Benefits of flavor encapsulation|website=Fona International|publisher=Fona International|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220152829/https://www.fona.com/sites/default/files/Flavor%20Encapsulation_October_2014_v2.pdf|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Liquid flavor incorporations are either water-soluble, oil-soluble, or water-dispersible emulsions. The oil-soluble flavors remain in the gum longer, resulting in longer lasting flavor sensations, because the gum base is [[hydrophobic]] and attracted to oil-based components.

|<u>[[Sapotaceae]]</u>

[[Petroleum wax]]

[[Polyethylene]]

[[Polyisobutene|Polyisobutylene]]

[[Polyvinyl acetate]]

|<u>[[Apocynaceae]]</u>

|<u>[[Moraceae]]</u>

|<u>[[Euphorbiaceae]]</u>

[[File:Bubble gum at the Haribo factory.jpg|thumb|200px|Chewing gum balls]]

Chewing gum is rather shelf stable because of its non-reactive nature and low moisture content. The water activity of chewing gum ranges from 0.40 to 0.65.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Properties of Water in Foods|last1=Bussiere|first1=G.|last2=Serpelloni|first2=M.|chapter=Confectionery and Water Activity Determination of AW by Calculation |year=1985|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=9789401087568|editor-last=Simatos|editor-first=D.|series=NATO ASI Series|pages=627–45|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-009-5103-7_38|editor-last2=Multon|editor-first2=J. L.}}</ref> The moisture content of chewing gum ranges from three to six percent.<ref name=":4" /> In fact, chewing gum retains its quality for so long that, in most countries, it is not required by law to be labeled with an expiration date.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Formulation and Production of Chewing and Bubble Gum|last=Fritz|first=D|publisher=Kennedy's Publications Ltd.|year=2008|editor-last=Fritz|editor-first=D|edition=2|location=Essex|pages=75–90|chapter=Evaluation and shelf-life}}</ref> If chewing gum remains in a stable environment, over time the gum may become brittle or lose some of its flavor, but it will never be unsafe to eat.<ref name=":5" /> If chewing gum is exposed to moisture, over time water migration may occur, making the gum soggy. In lollipops with a gum center, water migration can lead to the end of the product's shelf life, as it causes the exterior hard candy shell to soften and the interior gum center to harden.

While [[hydrophobic]] polymers beneficially repel water and contribute to chewiness, they also detrimentally attract oil. The stickiness of gum results from this hydrophobic nature, as gum can form bonds and stick when it makes contact with oily surfaces<ref name=":2" /> such as sidewalks, skin, hair, or the sole of one's shoe. To make matters worse, unsticking the gum is a challenge because the long polymers of the gum base stretch, rather than break. The sticky characteristic of gum may be problematic during processing if the gum sticks to any machinery or packaging materials during processing, impeding the flow of product. Aside from ensuring that the machinery is free from lipid-based residues, this issue can be combatted by the conditioning and coating of gum toward the end of the process. By adding either a powder or a coating to the exterior of the gum product, the hydrophobic gum base binds to the added substance instead of various surfaces with which it may come in contact.

[[File:BubblegumBlowing bubble gum.jpg|thumb|200px|Bubblegum bubble]]

Sugar-free gum sweetened with [[xylitol]] has been shown to reduce cavities and [[Dental plaque|plaque]].<ref name="polyol">{{cite journal |doi=10.14219/jada.archive.2008.0102 |pmid=19047666 |title=The impact of polyol-containing chewing gums on dental caries |journal=The Journal of the American Dental Association |volume=139 |issue=12 |pages=1602–14 |year=2008 |last1=Deshpande |first1=Amol |last2=Jadad |first2=Alejandro R. |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{BetterCite sourcejournal needed|reasonlast1=ThisALHumaid study|first1=Jehan was|last2=Bamashmous funded|first2=Mohamed by|date=2022 |title=Meta-analysis on the corporateEffectiveness parentof Xylitol in Caries Prevention |journal=Journal of TridentInternational gumSociety of Preventive and Community Dentistry |language=en-US |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=133–138 |doi=10.4103/jispcd.JISPCD_164_21 |doi-access=free |pmid=35462747 |pmc=9022379 |issn=2231-0762}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Söderling |first1=Eva |last2=Pienihäkkinen |first2=Kaisu |date=January2022 2017|title=Effects of xylitol chewing gum and candies on the accumulation of dental plaque: a systematic review |journal=Clinical Oral Investigations |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=119–129 |doi=10.1007/s00784-021-04225-8 |issn=1432-6981 |pmc=8791908 |pmid=34677696}}</ref> The sweetener [[sorbitol]] has the same benefit, but is only about one-third as effective as xylitol.<ref name="polyol" /> Other sugar substitutes, such as [[maltitol]], aspartame and acesulfame K, have also been found to not cause [[tooth decay]].<ref name="Emsley, J. 2004 pp. 189–197"/><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=24313583 |year=2013 |last1=Thabuis |first1=C |title=Effects of maltitol and xylitol chewing-gums on parameters involved in dental caries development |journal=European Journal of Paediatric Dentistry |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=303–08 |last2=Cheng |first2=C. Y. |last3=Wang |first3=X |last4=Pochat |first4=M |last5=Han |first5=A |last6=Miller |first6=L |last7=Wils |first7=D |last8=Guerin-Deremaux |first8=L }}</ref> Xylitol is specific in its inhibition of ''[[Streptococcus mutans]]'', bacteria that are significant contributors to tooth decay.<ref name="Milgrom">{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/154405910608500212 |pmid=16434738 |pmc=2225984 |title=Mutans Streptococci Dose Response to Xylitol Chewing Gum |journal=Journal of Dental Research |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=177–81 |year=2006 |last1=Milgrom |first1=P. |last2=Ly |first2=K.A. |last3=Roberts |first3=M.C. |last4=Rothen |first4=M. |last5=Mueller |first5=G. |last6=Yamaguchi |first6=D.K. }}</ref> Xylitol inhibits ''Streptococcus mutans'' in the presence of other sugars, with the exception of [[fructose]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1159/000073391 |pmid=14571117 |title=Xylitol Inhibition of Acid Production and Growth of Mutans Streptococci in the Presence of Various Dietary Sugars under Strictly Anaerobic Conditions |journal=Caries Research |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=404–09 |year=2003 |last1=Kakuta |first1=Hatsue |last2=Iwami |first2= Yoshimichi |last3=Mayanagi |first3=Hideaki |last4=Takahashi |first4=Nobuhiro |s2cid=21574455 }}</ref> Xylitol is a safe sweetener that benefits teeth and saliva production because, unlike most sugars, it is not fermented to acid.<ref name="Emsley, J. 2004 pp. 189–197"/> Daily doses of xylitol below 3.44&nbsp;grams are ineffective and doses above 10.32&nbsp;grams show no additional benefit.<ref name="Milgrom"/> Other active ingredients in chewing gum include [[fluoride]], which strengthens tooth enamel, and [[p-chlorbenzyl-4-methylbenzylpiperazine]], which prevents [[travel sickness]]. Chewing gum also increases saliva production.<ref name="Emsley, J. 2004 pp. 189–197"/>

Food and sucrose have a demineralizing effect upon [[Tooth enamel|enamel]] that has been reduced by adding [[calcium lactate]] to food.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1159/000262434 |pmid=9353582 |title=Effectiveness of Calcium Lactate Added to Food in Reducing Intraoral Demineralization of Enamel |journal=Caries Research |volume=31 |issue=6 |pages=429–33 |year=1997 |last1=Kashket |first1=S. |last2=Yaskell |first2=T. }}</ref> Calcium lactate added to toothpaste has reduced [[Calculus (dental)|calculus]] formation.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1159/000261550 |pmid=8402801 |title=Control of Calculus Formation by a Dentifrice Containing Calcium Lactate |journal=Caries Research |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=277–79 |year=1993 |last1=Schaeken |first1=M.J.M. |last2=Van Der Hoeven |first2=J.S. }}</ref> One study has shown that calcium lactate enhances enamel [[Remineralisation of teeth|remineralization]] when added to xylitol-containing gum,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1159/000088905 |pmid=16352880 |title=The Effect of Adding Calcium Lactate to Xylitol Chewing Gum on Remineralization of Enamel Lesions |journal=Caries Research |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=43–46 |year=2006 |last1=Suda |first1=R. |last2=Suzuki |first2=T. |last3=Takiguchi |first3=R. |last4=Egawa |first4=K. |last5=Sano |first5=T. |last6=Hasegawa |first6=K. |s2cid=45316316 }}</ref> but another study showed no additional remineralization benefit from calcium lactate or other calcium compounds in chewing-gum.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1159/000098043 |pmid=17284911 |title=Effects of Various Forms of Calcium Added to Chewing Gum on Initial Enamel Carious Lesions in situ |journal=Caries Research |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=108–14 |year=2007 |last1=Schirrmeister |first1=J.F. |last2=Seger |first2=R.K. |last3=Altenburger |first3=M.J. |last4=Lussi |first4=A. |last5=Hellwig |first5=E. |s2cid=22686522 |url=https://boris.unibe.ch/23164/ }}</ref>

Controversy arises as to health concerns surrounding the questionable classification of gum as food, particularly in regard to some alternative uses for gum base ingredients. According to the [[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA), chewing gum is considered a food, as the term "food" means "a raw, cooked, or processed edible substance, ice, beverage, or ingredient used or intended for use or for sale in whole or in part for human consumption, or chewing gum".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/RetailFoodProtection/FoodCode/ucm186464.htm|title=Food Code – FDA Food Code 2009: Chapter 1 – Purpose & Definitions|website=www.fda.gov|language=en|access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref> Chewing gum is defined as a food of [[minimal nutritional value]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fns.usda.gov/school-meals/foods-minimal-nutritional-value|title=Foods of Minimal Nutritional Value|date=13 September 2013|website=www.fns.usda.gov|series=Appendix B of 7 CFR Part 210|publisher=[[Food and Nutrition Service]], United States Department of Agriculture|language=en|access-date=4 August 2017}}</ref> However, many of the ingredients in gum base have uses in inedible products, which raises concern in some consumers. Polyethylene, one of the most popular components of gum base, belongs to a common group of plastics and is used in products from plastic bags to hula hoops. [[Polyvinyl acetate]] is a sticky polymer found in white glue. [[Butyl rubber]] is typically used in caulking and the lining of car tires, in addition to its role in gum base. [[Paraffin wax]] is a byproduct of refined petroleum.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.scienceworld.ca/ever-wonder-about-bubble-gum|title=Ever Wonder About Bubble Gum?|date=24 September 2013|newspaper=Science World British Columbia|access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref>

Concern has arisen about the possible [[carcinogenicity]] of the [[vinyl acetate]] (acetic acid ethenyl ester) used by some manufacturers in their [[gum base]]s. Currently, the ingredient can be hidden in the catch-all term "gum base". The Canadian government at one point classified the ingredient as a "potentially high hazard substance."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canada.com/topics/bodyandhealth/story.html?id=06e4fd58-ebb9-4bd3-b239-d0f87b743155 |title=Substance found in chewing gum could be labelled toxic |publisher=Canada.com |date=30 May 2008 |access-date=25 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211171235/http://www.canada.com/topics/bodyandhealth/story.html?id=06e4fd58-ebb9-4bd3-b239-d0f87b743155 |archive-date=11 February 2012 }}</ref> However, on 31 January 2010, the Government of Canada's final assessment concluded that exposure to vinyl acetate is not considered to be harmful to human health.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/ese-ees/59EC93F6-2C5D-42B4-BB09-EB198C44788D/batch2_108-05-4_pc_en.pdf |title=Summary of Public Comments Received on the Government of Canada's Draft Screening Assessment Report and Risk Management Scope on Bisphenol A |access-date=25 January 2012}}</ref> This decision under the [[Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999|Canadian Environmental Protection Act]] (CEPA) was based on new information received during the public comment period, as well as more recent information from the risk assessment conducted by the European Union.

Various teams of researchers have developed gum that is less adhesive and degrades within days or weeks.<ref>{{citeCite web|url=httphttps://www.confectionerynews.com/ManufacturersArticle/2013/01/04/Rev7-branded-degradable-gum-exits-US-as-maker-seeks-licensees|title=Rev7 branded degradable gum exits US as maker seeks licensees|date=4 January 2013|website=confectionerynews.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/408793/nonstick-chewing-gum/|title=Nonstick Chewing Gum|last=Patel|first=Prachi|newspaper=MIT Technology Review|access-date=9 December 2016}}</ref> One example, [[Rev7 Gum]], was briefly for sale from 2010 to 2012.