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{{Short description|Indigenous North American language family}}▼
{{redirect|Nadene|the female given name|Nadine (given name)}}
▲{{Short description|Indigenous North American language family}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Na-Dene
| altname = Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit
|
|
| region = [[North America]]▼
| familycolor = Na-Dene▼
| family = One of the world's primary [[Language family|language families]]
▲| region = [[North America]]
| child1 = [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]]▼
▲| familycolor = Na-Dene
|
| iso5 = xnd▼
▲| child1 = [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]]
| glotto = atha1245▼
▲| iso5 = xnd
▲| glotto = atha1245
| glottorefname = Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit
| ancestor =
| glottoname =
| notes =
}}
'''Na-Dene''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|n|ɑː|d|ᵻ|ˈ|n|eɪ}} {{respell|NAH|dih|NAY}}; also '''Nadene''', '''Na-Dené''', '''Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit''', '''Tlina–Dene''') is a [[language family|family]] of [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]] that includes at least the [[Athabaskan languages]], [[Eyak language|Eyak]], and [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]] languages. [[Haida language|Haida]] was formerly included, but is now considered doubtful. By far the most widely spoken Na-Dene language today is [[Navajo language|Navajo]].▼
▲'''Na-Dene''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|n|ɑː|d|ᵻ|ˈ|n|eɪ}} {{respell|NAH|dih|NAY}}; also '''Nadene''', '''Na-Dené''', '''Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit''', '''Tlina–Dene''') is a [[
In February 2008, a proposal connecting Na-Dene (excluding Haida) to the [[Yeniseian languages]] of central [[Siberia]] into a [[Dené–Yeniseian languages|Dené–Yeniseian]] family was published and well-received by a number of linguists.<ref name=DYS>[http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/dy/dy2008/ Dene–Yeniseic Symposium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181115220154/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/dy/dy2008/ |date=2018-11-15 }}, University of Alaska Fairbanks, February 2008, accessed 30 Mar 2010</ref> It was proposed in a 2014 paper that the Na-Dene languages of North America and the Yeniseian languages of Siberia had a common origin in a language spoken in [[Beringia]], between the two continents.<ref>Mark A. Sicoli and Gary Holton, [http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0091722 Linguistic Phylogenies Support Back-Migration from Beringia to Asia], PLoS ONE, March 12, 2014, accessed November 25, 2014.</ref>▼
▲In February 2008, a proposal connecting Na-Dene (excluding Haida) to the [[Yeniseian languages]] of central [[Siberia]] into a [[Dené–Yeniseian languages|Dené–Yeniseian]] family was published and well
== Etymology ==
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== Family division ==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
In its uncontroversial core, Na-Dene consists of two branches, Tlingit and Athabaskan–Eyak:
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** [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]]: 1,360 speakers
** Athabaskan–Eyak
*** [[Eyak language|Eyak]]: the last native speaker died in 2008, revitalization efforts are underway.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eyakpreservationcouncil.org/culture/eyak-revitalization-project/|title=Cultural Defense Fund :: Eyak Revitalization Project|website=www.eyakpreservationcouncil.org|access-date=2024-03-16|archive-date=2024-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226195209/https://eyakpreservationcouncil.org/culture/eyak-revitalization-project/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*** [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]]
**** [[Northern Athabaskan languages|Northern]]
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==Typological profile of Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
All of these languages share a highly complex prefixing verb structure in which tense and mood markers are interdigitated between subject and object agreement markers. The morphological hallmark of the family is a series of prefixes found directly before the verb root that raise or lower the transitivity of the verb word. These prefixes, traditionally known as "classifiers", derive historically from a combination of three distinct classes of morphemes and are not found in any other Native American language family.
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==Proposals of deeper genealogical relations involving Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit==
A genealogical connection between the Tlingit, Eyak and Athabaskan languages was suggested early in the 19th century, but not universally accepted until much later. [[Haida language|Haida]], with 15 fluent speakers (M. Krauss, 1995), was originally linked to Tlingit by [[Franz Boas]] in 1894. Both Haida and Tlingit were then connected to Athabaskan by Edward Sapir in 1915. Linguists such as [[Lyle Campbell]] (1997){{what||date=May 2024|reason=please specify what "Campbell 1997" is}} today consider the evidence inconclusive. They have classified Haida as a [[language isolate]]. In order to emphasise the exclusion of Haida, Campbell refers to the language family as ''Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit'' rather than ''Na-Dene''. In 2010 Jeff Leer published extensive primary materials on what he calls ''PAET'' (Proto-Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit).
===Dené–Yeniseian===
{{Main|Dené–Yeniseian languages}}
In 2008, [[Edward Vajda]] of [[Western Washington University]] presented evidence suggesting that the Na-Dene languages (Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit) might be related to the [[Yeniseian languages|Yeniseian]] (or Yeniseic) languages of [[Siberia]],<ref name="vajd08b">See [[#vajd08b|Vajda 2010]]</ref> the only living representative of which is the [[Ket language]].
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=== Sino-Tibetan ===
{{Main|Sino-Tibetan languages}}
A link between the Na–Dené languages and Sino-Tibetan languages, known as '''Sino–Dené''' was proposed by [[Edward Sapir]]. Around 1920 Sapir became convinced that Na-Dené was more closely related to Sino-Tibetan than to other American families.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ruhlen |first=Merritt |date=1998-11-10 |title=The origin of the Na-Dene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=95 |issue=23 |pages=13994–13996 |bibcode=1998PNAS...9513994R |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=25007 |pmid=9811914 |doi-access=free}}</ref> He wrote a series of letters to [[Alfred Kroeber]] where he enthusiastically spoke of a connection between Na-Dene and "Indo-Chinese". In 1925, a supporting article summarizing his thoughts, albeit not written by him, entitled "The Similarities of Chinese and Indian Languages", was published in Science Supplements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Orlandi |first=Georg |date=2021-12-01 |title=Once again on the history and validity of the Sino-Tibetan bifurcate model / Еще раз к вопросу об истории и степени обоснованности бинарной модели классификации сино-тибетских языков |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jlr-2021-193-409/html?lang=en |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |language=en |volume=19 |issue=3–4 |pages=263–292 |doi=10.1515/jlr-2021-193-409 |doi-broken-date=2024-09-12 |issn=2219-4029 |doi-access=free |access-date=2024-01-09 |archive-date=2024-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109035601/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jlr-2021-193-409/html?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
Edward Vadja's Dené–Yeniseian proposal renewed interest among linguists such as [[Geoffrey Caveney]] (2014) to look into support for the Sino–Dené hypothesis. Caveney considered a link between Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dené, and Yeniseian to be plausible but did not support the hypothesis that Sino-Tibetan and Na-Dené were related to the Caucasian languages (Sino–Caucasian and Dené–Caucasian).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caveney |first=Geoffrey |date=2014 |title=Sino-Tibetan ŋ- and Na-Dene *kw- / *gw- / *xw-: 1st Person Pronouns and Lexical Cognate Sets |journal=Journal of Chinese Linguistics |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=461–487 |jstor=24774894}}</ref>▼
▲Edward
A 2023 analysis by [[David Bradley (linguist)|David Bradley]] using the standard techniques of comparative linguistics supports a distant genetic link between the Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dené, and Yeniseian language families. Bradley argues that any similarities Sino-Tibetan shares with other language families of the East Asia area such as Hmong-Mien, [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] (which is actually a [[sprachbund]]), Austroasiatic,
===Other proposals===
According to [[Joseph Greenberg]]'s controversial classification of the languages of Native North America, Na-Dené (including Haida) is one of the three main groups of Native languages spoken in the Americas. Contemporary supporters of Greenberg's theory, such as [[Merritt Ruhlen]], have suggested that the Na-Dené language family represents a distinct migration of people from [[Asia]] into the New World that occurred six to eight thousand years ago, placing it around four thousand years later than the previous migration into the Americas by [[Amerind languages|Amerind]] speakers; this remains an unproven hypothesis.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/12/science/earliest-americans-arrived-in-3-waves-not-1-dna-study-finds.html |title=Earliest Americans arrived in 3 waves, not 1, DNA study finds |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |date=11 July 2012 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-date=3 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203144050/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/12/science/earliest-americans-arrived-in-3-waves-not-1-dna-study-finds.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Ruhlen speculates that the Na-Dené speakers may have arrived in boats, initially settling near the [[Haida Gwaii]], now in [[British Columbia]], Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.centerfirstamericans.com/mt.html/?a=6Na |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120212958/http://www.centerfirstamericans.com/mt.html/?a=6Na |archive-date=2016-11-20 |title=Center for the Study of the First Americans |department=Anthropology |publisher=Texas A&M University |date=2011-05-15 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
Bouda, in various publications in the 1930s through the 1950s, described a linguistic network that (besides Yeniseian and Sino-Tibetan) also included [[North Caucasian languages|Caucasian]], and [[Burushaski]], some forms of which have gone by the name of Sino-Caucasian. The works of R. Bleichsteiner<ref name="blei30">See [[#blei30|Bleichsteiner 1930]]</ref> and O.G. Tailleur,<ref name="tail58">See [[#tail58|Tailleur 1958]] and [[#tail94|Tailleur 1994]]</ref> the late [[Sergei Starostin|Sergei A. Starostin]]<ref name="star82">See [[#star82|Starostin 1982]], [[#star84|Starostin 1984]], [[#star91|Starostin 1991]], [[#starruhl94|Starostin & Ruhlen 1994]]</ref> and [[Sergei L. Nikolayev]]<ref name="niko91">See [[#niko91|Nikola(y)ev 1991]]</ref> have sought to confirm these connections. Others who have developed the hypothesis, often expanded to Dené–Caucasian, include J.D. Bengtson,<ref name="beng94">See [[#beng94|Bengtson 1994]], [[#beng98|Bengtson 1998]], [[#beng2008|Bengtson 2008]]</ref> V. Blažek,<ref name="blazbeng95">See [[#blazbeng95|Blažek & Bengtson 1995]]</ref> [[Joseph Greenberg|J.H. Greenberg]] (with [[Merritt Ruhlen|M. Ruhlen]]),<ref name="greenruhl92">See [[#greenruhl92|Greenberg & Ruhlen]], [[#greenruhl97|Greenberg & Ruhlen 1997]]</ref> and M. Ruhlen.<ref name="ruhlrece">See [[#ruhl97|Ruhlen 1997]], [[#ruhl98a|Ruhlen 1998a]], [[#ruhl98b|Ruhlen 1998b]]</ref> [[George Starostin]] continues his father's work in Yeniseian, Sino-Caucasian and other fields.<ref name="reshstar95">See [[#reshstar95a|Reshetnikov & Starostin 1995a]], [[#reshstar95|Reshetnikov & Starostin 1995b]], [[#dybostar08|Dybo & Starostin]]</ref>
This theory is very controversial or viewed as obsolete by other linguists.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trask |first1=R. L. |author1-link=Larry Trask |title=The dictionary of historical and comparative linguistics |date=2000 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=9780748610013 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dalby |first1=Andrew |author1-link=Andrew Dalby |title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages |date=1998 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780231115681 |page=434}}</ref><ref name="google 1gKF9iWqt0gC">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1gKF9iWqt0gC&q=%22sino-austronesian%22+%22sino-caucasian%22&pg=RA1-PT151|title=Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics|last1=Sanchez-Mazas|first1=Alicia|last2=Blench|first2=Roger|last3=Ross|first3=Malcolm D.|last4=Peiros|first4=Ilia|last5=Lin|first5=Marie|date=2008-07-25|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134149629|language=en|access-date=2020-10-19|archive-date=2024-05-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523062444/https://books.google.com/books?id=1gKF9iWqt0gC&q=%22sino-austronesian%22+%22sino-caucasian%22&pg=RA1-PT151#v=snippet&q=%22sino-austronesian%22%20%22sino-caucasian%22&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Genetics and dispersal ==
Speakers of the Na-Dene languages, while mostly closely related to other North American indigenous peoples, derive around 10% of their ancestry from a Siberian source closely related to [[Koryaks]] not found in other Native American groups. The contact between the ancestors of Na-Dene speakers and this Siberian group is suggested to have occurred around 9,000-5,500 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Willerslev |first1=Eske |last2=Meltzer |first2=David J. |date=2021-06-17 |title=Peopling of the Americas as inferred from ancient genomics |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03499-y |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=594 |issue=7863 |pages=356–364 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03499-y |pmid=34135521 |bibcode=2021Natur.594..356W |issn=0028-0836 |access-date=2024-05-07 |archive-date=2021-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912161643/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03499-y |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[urheimat]] (origin point of the family) has been suggested to have been in Alaska.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vajda |first1=Edward |url=https://brill.com/view/title/58384 |title=Mid-Holocene Language Connections between Asia and North America |last2=Fortescue |first2=Michael |date=2022-01-27 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-43682-4 |chapter=Na-Dene: Tlingit, Eyak, and the Dene Languages |doi=10.1163/9789004436824_014 |access-date=2024-05-07 |archive-date=2022-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411090712/https://brill.com/view/title/58384 |url-status=live }}</ref> A large southward migration of Athabaskan peoples is thought to have occurred around 1,000 years ago, resulting in the settlement of southern North America.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Doering |first1=Briana N. |last2=Esdale |first2=Julie A. |last3=Reuther |first3=Joshua D. |last4=Catenacci |first4=Senna D. |date=July 2020 |title=A Multiscalar Consideration of the Athabascan Migration |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2020.34 |journal=American Antiquity |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=470–491 |doi=10.1017/aaq.2020.34 |issn=0002-7316 |access-date=2024-05-07 |archive-date=2024-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523062447/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/abs/multiscalar-consideration-of-the-athabascan-migration/FBC0A9851DBF4C3B69E9547FD9CD9888 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Obstruent correspondences==
This phonological chart shows where the listed varieties have sounds which are the same, similar, and sometimes different. The sounds shown, [[obstruents]], are a particular class of consonants. Where similarities are found between one or more varieties, this presents at least some evidence of genetic relatedness among those varieties.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
Line 92 ⟶ 100:
| colspan=5 | {{IPA|tʼ}} ||
|-
| colspan=6 style="background:#
|-
| colspan=4 | {{IPA|tɬʼ}} || {{IPA|ɬʼ}}, {{IPA|tɬʼ}} ||
Line 98 ⟶ 106:
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɬ}} || {{IPA|ɬ~l}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɬ}} ||
|-
| colspan=6 style="background:#
|-
| colspan=5 | {{IPA|dʒ}} ||?
Line 108 ⟶ 116:
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʂ~ʐ}} || colspan=2 | {{IPA|ʃ}} ({{IPA|s}}) || {{IPA|ɬ}}
|-
| colspan=6 style="background:#
|-
| {{IPA|ɡʲ}} || {{IPA|dz}} || {{IPA|[dz]}}, {{IPA|s~z}} || {{IPA|dz}} || {{IPA|ɡ}} ||
Line 124 ⟶ 132:
| {{IPA|xʲ}} || {{IPA|s}}; {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|x}} ||
|-
| colspan=6 style="background:#
|-
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{IPA|ɡʲ}} || {{IPA|ɡ}} || rowspan=2 | {{IPA|ɡ(ʷ)}} ||
Line 142 ⟶ 150:
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|xʷ}} || {{IPA|ʂ~ʐ}} || {{IPA|xʷ → x}} ||
|-
| colspan=6 style="background:#
|-
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ɢ}} || rowspan=2| {{IPA|ɢ}} || rowspan=2| {{IPA|ɢ(ʷ)}} ||
Line 168 ⟶ 176:
| $ || {{IPA|x(ʷ) ?}} || $ ({{IPA|ʃ~xʲ}}) || {{IPA|xʷ → x}}; {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|χ}} ||
|}
{{Refbegin}}
Table notes:
# To prevent cluttering the table, phonemes in the PAET, PAE and PA columns are not asterisked.
# Leer (2008, 2010) # In Athabaskan and Eyak, sibilants can be diminutive variants of shibilants. In Tlingit, on the other hand, shibilants might sometimes be diminutive variants of sibilants. These correspondences are in parentheses.
{{Refend}}
{{notelist}}▼
== See also ==
* [[Dené–Yeniseian languages]]▼
* [[Athabaskan languages]]
▲* [[Dené–Yeniseian languages]]
* [[Southern Athabaskan languages]]
== Explanatory footnotes ==
▲{{notelist}}
== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}
== General and cited references ==
{{Refbegin|33em}}
*{{Citation |last=Bengtson |first=J. D. |year=1994 |title=Edward Sapir and the 'Sino-Dene' Hypothesis |journal=Anthropological Science |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=207–230 |issn=0918-7960 |doi=10.1537/ase.102.207 |doi-access=free }}.
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*{{Citation |last=Pinnow |first=Heinz-Jürgen |year=2006a |title=Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Lichte der Greenberg-Klassifikation |language=de|trans-title=The Na-Déné Languages in Light of Greenberg's Classification |edition=2nd revised |location=Bredstedt |publisher=Druckerei Lempfert }}.
*{{Citation |last=Pinnow |first=Heinz-Jürgen |year=2006b |title=Sprachhistorische Untersuchung zur Stellung des Haida als Na-Dene-Sprache |work=Unveränderte Neuausgabe aus INDIANA 10, Gedenkschrift Gerdt Kutscher. Teil 2 Berlin 1985. Mit einem Anhang: Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Verhältnis zum Tibeto-Chinesischen |location=Bredstedt |publisher=Druckerei Lempfert }}.
*{{Citation |last1=Rubicz |first1=R. |last2=Melvin |first2=K. L. |last3=Crawford |first3=M. H. |year=2002 |title=Genetic Evidence for the phylogenetic relationship between Na-Dene and Yeniseian speakers |journal=Human Biology |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=743–761 |doi=10.1353/hub.2003.0011 |pmid=12617487 |url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/1808/16191/1/Crawford_HB_74%286%29743.pdf |hdl=1808/16191 |s2cid=18265356 |hdl-access=free |access-date=2019-09-24 |archive-date=2024-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523062442/https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/1808/16191/1/Crawford_HB_74%286%29743.pdf |url-status=live }}.
*{{Citation |last=Ruhlen |first=Merritt |year=1994a |title=The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-58426-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/originoflanguage00merr }}.
*{{Citation |last=Ruhlen |first=Merritt |year=1998 |title=The Origin of the Na-Dene |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=95 |issue=23 |pages=13994–13996 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 |pmid=9811914 |pmc=25007|bibcode=1998PNAS...9513994R |doi-access=free }}.
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== External links ==
* [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/ Alaska Native Language Center]
* [http://www.native-languages.org/famath_words.htm Athabaskan word comparison table]
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Na-Dene Languages}}
[[Category:Na-Dene languages| ]]
[[Category:Dené–Yeniseian languages]]▼
[[Category:Language families]]
▲[[Category:Dené–Yeniseian languages]]
| |||