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{{Short description|Intentionally false statement made to deceive}}
{{redirect-multi|3|Lying|Liar|White lie|other uses|Lie (disambiguation)|and|Lying (disambiguation)|and|Liar (disambiguation)|and| White lie (disambiguation)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
[[File:Pinocchio.jpg|thumb|The fictional character
A '''lie''' is an assertion that is believed to be false, typically used with the purpose of [[deception|deceiving]] or
Generally, the term "lie" carries a negative connotation, and depending on the context a person who communicates a lie may be subject to social, legal, religious, or criminal sanctions; for instance, [[perjury]], or the act of lying [[under oath]], can result in criminal and civil charges being pressed against the perjurer.
Although people in many cultures believe that deception can be detected by observing nonverbal behaviors (e.g. not making eye contact, fidgeting, stuttering, smiling) research indicates that people overestimate both the significance of such cues and their ability to make accurate judgements about deception.<ref name="Vrij" /><ref name="Zimmerman" /> More generally, people's ability to make true judgments is affected by biases towards accepting incoming information and interpreting feelings as evidence of [[truth]]. People do not always check incoming assertions against their memory.<ref name="Brashier">{{cite journal |last1=Brashier |first1=Nadia M. |last2=Marsh |first2=Elizabeth J. |title=Judging Truth |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |date=4 January 2020 |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=499–515 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-050807 |pmid=31514579 |s2cid=202569061 |
== Types and associated terms ==
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* [[File:"An ostrich only thinks he "covers up." - NARA - 513846.jpg|thumb|A motivational poster about lying declares "An [[ostrich]] only thinks he 'covers up'"]] A ''[[cover-up]]
* ''[[Defamation]]'' is the communication of a false statement that harms the reputation of an individual person, business, product, group, government, religion, or nation.<ref name="Dictionary.com"/>
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▲* A '''[[cover-up]]''' may be used to deny, defend, or obfuscate a lie, errors, embarrassing actions, or lifestyle, and/or lie(s) made previously.<ref name="Dictionary.com" /> One may deny a lie made on a previous occasion, or alternatively, one may claim that a previous lie was not as egregious as it was. For example, to claim that a premeditated lie was really "only" an emergency lie, or to claim that a self-serving lie was really "only" a white lie or noble lie. This should not be confused with [[confirmation bias]] in which the deceiver is deceiving themselves.{{fact|date=April 2023}}
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▲* To '''deflect''' is to avoid the subject that the lie is about, not giving attention to the lie. When attention is given to the subject the lie is based around, deflectors ignore or refuse to respond. Skillful deflectors are passive-aggressive, who when confronted with the subject choose to ignore and not respond.<ref name="Patterns for College Writing">{{cite book |last1=Ericsson |first1=Stephanie |title=Patterns for College Writing |date=2010 |publisher=Bedford |location=St. Wartins |isbn=978-0312601522|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312535513/page/487 487] |edition=11th|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312535513/page/487 }}</ref>
* [[File:How to Spot Fake News.pdf|right|thumb|Infographic ''How to spot fake news'' published by the [[International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions]]]] ''[[Fake news]]
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▲* An '''[[exaggeration]]''' occurs when the most fundamental aspects of a statement are true, but only to a certain degree. It also is seen as "stretching the truth" or making something appear more powerful, meaningful, or real than it is. Saying that someone devoured most of something when they only ate half is considered an exaggeration. An exaggeration might be easily found to be a [[hyperbole]] where a person's statement (i.e. in informal speech, such as "He did this one million times already!") is meant not to be understood literally.<ref name="Dictionary.com"/>
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▲* '''[[Fake news]]''' is supposed to be a type of [[yellow journalism]] that consists of deliberate [[misinformation]] or [[hoax]]es spread via traditional print and broadcast [[news media]] or online [[social media]].<ref>AllCott, Hunt and Matthew Gentzkow. [https://web.stanford.edu/~gentzkow/research/fakenews.pdf "Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018172144/https://web.stanford.edu/~gentzkow/research/fakenews.pdf |date=18 October 2017 }} ''Stanford University''. Spring 2017. 7 December 2017.</ref> Sometimes the term is applied as a deceptive device to deflect attention from uncomfortable truths and facts.{{fact|date=April 2023}}
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▲* A '''fib''' is a lie that is easy to forgive due to its subject being a trivial matter; for example, a child may tell a fib by claiming that the family [[dog]] broke a household vase, when the child was the one who broke it.<ref name="Dictionary.com"/>
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▲* '''[[Fraud]]''' refers to the act of inducing another person or people to believe a lie in order to secure material or financial gain for the liar. Depending on the context, fraud may subject the liar to civil or criminal penalties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Druzin|first=Bryan|title=The Criminalization of Lying: Under what Circumstances, if any, should Lies be made Criminal?|url=https://works.bepress.com/bryan_druzin/6/|journal=Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology|volume=101|pages=548–550|year=2011|access-date=5 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005131735/https://works.bepress.com/bryan_druzin/6/|archive-date=5 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
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▲* A '''gray lie''' is told partly to help others and partly to help ourselves. It may vary in the shade of gray, depending on the balance of help and harm. Gray lies are, almost by definition, hard to clarify. For example you can lie to help a friend out of trouble but then gain the reciprocal benefit of them lying for you while those they have harmed in some way lose out.<ref name="ChangingMinds.org" />{{Better source needed|reason=Term created by changingminds.org author?|date=April 2021}}
*
▲* A '''[[half-truth]]''' or '''partial truth''' is a [[deception|deceptive statement]] that includes some element of [[truth]]. The statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true, but only part of the whole truth, or it may employ some deceptive element, such as improper [[punctuation]] or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, [[Evasion (ethics)|evade]], [[blame]], or misrepresent the truth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Half-truth |title=Merriam Webster Definition of Half-truth, August 1, 2007 |publisher=M-w.com |date=31 August 2012 |access-date=10 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223143222/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/half-truth |archive-date=23 December 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Partial truths are characterized by malicious intent, and therefore, honest people should not excuse them as containing a "rational kernel."<ref>Julius, Anthony, ''Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England'', Oxford, Oxford UP, 2010. p. 117.</ref>
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▲* An '''[[honest lie]]''' (or [[confabulation]]) may be identified by verbal statements or actions that inaccurately describe the history, background, and present situations. There is generally no intent to [[misinformation|misinform]] and the individual is unaware that their information is false. Because of this, it is not technically a lie at all since, by definition, there must be an intent to deceive for the statement to be considered a lie.{{fact|date=April 2023}}
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▲* '''Jocose lies''' are lies meant in [[jocular|jest]], intended to be understood as such by all present parties. Teasing and [[irony]] are examples. A more elaborate instance is seen in some [[storytelling]] traditions, where the storyteller's insistence that the story is the absolute truth, despite all evidence to the contrary (i.e., [[tall tale]]), is considered humorous. There is debate about whether these are "real" lies, and different philosophers hold different views. The [[Crick Crack Club]] in London arranges a yearly "Grand Lying Contest" with the winner being awarded the coveted "Hodja Cup" (named for the Mulla [[Nasreddin]]: ''"The truth is something I have never spoken."''). The winner in 2010 was [[Hugh Lupton]]. In the United States, the [[Burlington Liars' Club]] awards an annual title to the "World Champion Liar."<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp7jJrocxcYC&pg=PA104 |page=104|title=The Indiana Book of Records, Firsts, and Fascinating Facts|isbn=0253283205|last1=Cavinder|first1=Fred D.|year=1985}}</ref>
* {{anchor|Minimisation}}
▲* '''[[Lie-to-children]]''' is a phrase that describes a simplified explanation of technical or complex subjects as a teaching method for children and laypeople. While lies-to-children are useful in teaching complex subjects to people who are new to the concepts discussed, they can promote the creation of [[List of common misconceptions|misconception]]s among the people who listen to them. The phrase has been incorporated by academics within the fields of [[biology]], [[evolution]], [[bioinformatics]], and the [[social sciences]]. Media use of the term has extended to publications including ''[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]'' and ''[[Forbes]]''.{{fact|date=April 2023}}
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▲* '''Lying by omission{{Anchor|Lying by omission}}''', also known as a continuing misrepresentation or [[quote mining]], occurs when an important fact is left out in order to foster a misconception. Lying by omission includes the failure to correct pre-existing misconceptions. For example, when the seller of a car declares it has been serviced regularly, but does not mention that a fault was reported during the last service, the seller lies by omission. It may be compared to dissimulation. An omission is when a person tells most of the truth, but leaves out a few key facts that therefore, completely obscures the truth.<ref name="Patterns for College Writing"/>
* [[File:Plato Silanion Musei Capitolini MC1377.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Plato]] presented arguments to justify the use of [[noble lie]]s in his ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]''.<ref>Aruffo, Madeline. [https://www.bu.edu/av/core/journal/xxiii/Aruffo.pdf "Problems with the Noble Lie."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517023931/http://www.bu.edu/av/core/journal/xxiii/Aruffo.pdf |date=17 May 2017 }} ''Boston University''. Accessed 4 December 2017.</ref>]] A ''[[noble lie]]'', which also could be called a strategic untruth, is one that normally would cause discord if uncovered, but offers some benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly society, therefore, potentially being beneficial to others. It is often told to maintain law, order, and safety.▼
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▲* '''Lying in trade''' occurs when the seller of a product or service may advertise untrue facts about the product or service in order to gain sales, especially by competitive advantage. Many countries and states have enacted [[consumer protection]] laws intended to combat such fraud.
* In [[psychiatry]],
▲* A '''[[memory hole]]''' is a mechanism for the alteration or disappearance of inconvenient or embarrassing documents, photographs, transcripts, or other records, such as from a [[website]] or other archive, particularly as part of an attempt to give the impression that something never happened.<ref name="Murphy">[http://firedoglake.com/2010/05/31/memorial-day-memory-hole-after-israel-forgets-exodus-white-house-forgets-shores-of-tripoli-will-obama-remember-nato/ Murphy, Kirk, ''Memorial Day Memory Hole: After Israel Forgets “Exodus”, White House Forgets “Shores of Tripoli”. Will Obama Remember NATO?''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101092344/http://firedoglake.com/2010/05/31/memorial-day-memory-hole-after-israel-forgets-exodus-white-house-forgets-shores-of-tripoli-will-obama-remember-nato/ |date=1 November 2014 }} 31 May 2010 [[Firedoglake.com]]</ref><ref name="mother">[http://motherjones.com/mojo/2010/06/nevada-tea-partier-memory-hole-website-sharron-angle-harry-reid-senate Weinstein, Adam, ''Nevada Tea Partier's Memory Hole'', 9 June 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131222424/http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2010/06/nevada-tea-partier-memory-hole-website-sharron-angle-harry-reid-senate |date=31 January 2017 }}. [[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]].</ref>
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▲* {{anchor|Minimisation}}'''[[Minimisation (psychology)|Minimization]]''' is the opposite of exaggeration. It is a type of [[deception]]<ref name="Guerrero, Andersen, & Afifi, 2007">Guerrero, L., Anderson, P., Afifi, W. (2007). Close Encounters: Communication in Relationships (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.</ref> involving [[denial]] coupled with [[Rationalization (psychology)|rationalization]] in situations where complete denial is implausible.{{fact|date=April 2023}}
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▲* '''[[Mutual deceit]]''' is a situation wherein lying is both accepted and expected<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Minkler|first=Alanson|title=Integrity and Agreement: Economics When Principles Also Matter|date=2011|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0472116430|location=Ann Arbor|pages=78, 128}}</ref> or that the parties mutually accept the deceit in question. This can be demonstrated in the case of a [[poker]] game wherein the strategies rely on [[deception]] and [[Bluff (poker)|bluffing]] to win.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Arp|first=Robert|title=Psych and Philosophy|date=2013|publisher=Open Court Publishing|isbn=978-0812698251|location=Chicago|pages=140}}</ref>
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▲[[File:Plato Silanion Musei Capitolini MC1377.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Plato]] presented arguments to justify the use of [[noble lie]]s in his ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]''.<ref>Aruffo, Madeline. [https://www.bu.edu/av/core/journal/xxiii/Aruffo.pdf "Problems with the Noble Lie."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517023931/http://www.bu.edu/av/core/journal/xxiii/Aruffo.pdf |date=17 May 2017 }} ''Boston University''. Accessed 4 December 2017.</ref>]]
* The phrase "
* A ''theraputic fib'' is lying, or bending the truth, in order to avoid increased agitation from a person with dementia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Theraputic Fibs: What they are and why they are OK |date=6 February 2018 |url=https://iona.org/therapeutic-fibs-ok/ |access-date=2024-05-14 |language=en}}</ref> The intent is not to deceive the patient, but rather to help them feel safe and secure in facing an otherwise upsetting situation or fact.
▲* '''[[Paltering]]''' is the active use of selective truthful statements to mislead.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gerdeman|first=Dina|date=2016-12-05|title=How To Deceive Others With Truthful Statements (It's Called 'Paltering,' And It's Risky)|url=http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/why-one-must-not-palter-when-negotiating|access-date=2021-11-18|website=HBS Working Knowledge|language=en}}</ref>
*
▲* '''[[Paternalistic deception]]''' is a lie told because it is believed (possibly incorrectly) that the deceived person will benefit.
* {{anchor|White lie}}A
▲* In [[psychiatry]], '''[[pathological lying]]''' (also called compulsive lying, pseudologia fantastica, and mythomania) is a behavior of habitual or compulsive lying.<ref name="jaapl">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dike CC, Baranoski M, Griffith EE |title=Pathological lying revisited |journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=342–349 |year=2005 |pmid=16186198 |url=http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16186198 |access-date=6 July 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130113031731/http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16186198 |archive-date=13 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dike">{{cite news |first=Charles C. |last=Dike |date=1 June 2008 |title=Pathological Lying: Symptom or Disease? |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1162950 |volume=25 |issue=7 |access-date=6 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110308102757/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1162950 |archive-date=8 March 2011 |url-status=dead |work=Psychiatric Times }}</ref> It was first described in the medical literature in 1891 by Anton Delbrueck.<ref name="Dike" /> Although it is a controversial topic,<ref name="Dike"/> pathological lying has been defined as "falsification entirely disproportionate to any discernible end in view, may be extensive and very complicated, and may manifest over a period of years or even a lifetime".<ref name="jaapl"/> The individual may be aware they are lying, or may believe they are telling the truth, being unaware that they are relating fantasies.{{fact|date=April 2023}}
*
▲* '''[[Perjury]]''' is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material matter under oath or affirmation in a [[court of law]], or in any of various sworn statements in writing. Perjury is a [[crime]], because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the credibility of the court to remain intact, witness testimony must be relied on as truthful.<ref name="Dictionary.com"/>
▲* A '''{{vanchor|polite lie}}''' is a lie that a [[politeness]] standard requires, and that usually is known to be untrue by both parties. Whether such lies are acceptable is heavily dependent on culture. A common polite lie in international etiquette may be to decline invitations because of "scheduling difficulties", or due to "[[diplomatic illness]]". Similarly, the butler lie is a small lie that usually is sent electronically and is used to terminate conversations or to [[save face]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Dec10/WhiteLiesTech.html |title=Butler Lie term coined at Cornell University |publisher=News.cornell.edu |date=20 December 2010 |access-date=10 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028034002/http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Dec10/WhiteLiesTech.html |archive-date=28 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>
▲* '''[[Puffery]]''' is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and publicity announcements, such as "the highest quality at the lowest price", or "always votes in the best interest of all the people". Such statements are unlikely to be true – but cannot be proven false and so, do not violate trade laws, especially as the consumer is expected to be able to determine that it is not the absolute truth.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aj8-fMhlzUMC&pg=PA293 |page=293 |title=Cengage Advantage Books: Essentials of Business Law |isbn=978-0324537123 |last1=Beatty |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Samuelson |first2=Susan |year=2007 }}</ref>
▲* A '''red lie''' is about spite and revenge. It is driven by the motive to harm others even at the expense of harming oneself, out of an angry desire for retribution.<ref name="ChangingMinds.org" />{{Better source needed|reason=Term created by changingminds.org author?|date=April 2021}}
▲* The phrase "'''speaking with a [[forked tongue]]'''" means to deliberately say one thing and mean another or, to be hypocritical, or act in a duplicitous manner. This phrase was adopted by Americans around the time of the Revolution, and may be found in abundant references from the early nineteenth century – often reporting on American officers who sought to convince the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] with whom they negotiated that they "spoke with a straight and not with a forked tongue" (as for example, President [[Andrew Jackson]] told members of the Creek Nation in 1829).<ref>''Niles' Register'', 13 June 1829</ref> According to one 1859 account, the proverb that the "white man spoke with a forked tongue" originated in the 1690s, in the descriptions by the indigenous peoples of [[French colonization of the Americas|French colonials in America]] inviting members of the [[Iroquois Confederacy]] to attend a peace conference, but when the Iroquois arrived, the French had set an ambush and proceeded to slaughter and capture the Iroquois.<ref>''Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society'', Vol 19, 1859, p. 230.</ref>
▲* '''''[[Weasel word]]''''' is an [[informal language|informal term]]<ref>[[Microsoft Encarta]], "[http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861711798 weasel words] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604112456/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861711798 |date=4 June 2011 }}"</ref> for words and phrases aimed at creating an impression that a specific or meaningful statement has been made, when in fact only a vague or ambiguous claim has been communicated, enabling the specific meaning to be denied if the statement is challenged. A more formal term is [[equivocating|equivocation]].{{fact|date=April 2023}}
▲* {{anchor|White lie}}A '''white lie''' is a harmless or trivial lie, especially one told in order to be polite or to avoid hurting someone's feelings or stopping them from being upset by the truth.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/white_lie |title=Definition of 'white lie' |access-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418025741/https://www.lexico.com/definition/white_lie |website=Lexico |archive-date=18 April 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/white-lie |title=White lie |access-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905072153/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/white-lie |archive-date=5 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/white-lie?s=t |title=Definition of 'white lie' |access-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028150420/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/white-lie?s=t |archive-date=28 October 2019 |url-status=live |website=dictionary.com }}</ref> A white lie also is considered a lie to be used for greater good (pro-social behavior). It sometimes is used to shield someone from a hurtful or emotionally-damaging truth, especially when not knowing the truth is deemed by the liar as completely harmless.{{fact|date=April 2023}}
▲* '''[[wikt:vranyo|Vranyo]]''' expresses white lies or half-lies in Russian culture, told without the intention of (maliciously) deceiving, but as a fantasy, suppressing unpleasant parts of the truth.{{fact|date=April 2023}}
==Consequences==
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{{Main|Lie detection}}
The question of whether lies can be detected reliably through [[nonverbal communication|nonverbal]] has been the subject of frequent study. While people in many cultures believe that deception can be indicated by behaviors such as looking away, fidgeting, or stammering, this is not supported by research.<ref name="Vrij" /><ref name="Zimmerman">{{cite journal |last1=Zimmerman |first1=Laura |title=Deception detection |journal=Monitor on Psychology |publisher=American Psychological Association |date=2016 |volume=47 |issue=3 |page=46 |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/2016/03/deception.aspx |access-date=8 December 2021}}</ref> A 2019 review of research on deception and its detection through nonverbal behavior concludes that people tend to overestimate both the reliability of nonverbal behavior as an indicator of deception, and their ability to make accurate judgements about deception based on nonverbal behavior.<ref name="Vrij">{{cite journal |last1=Vrij |first1=Aldert |last2=Hartwig |first2=Maria |last3=Granhag |first3=Pär Anders |title=Reading Lies: Nonverbal Communication and Deception |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |date=4 January 2019 |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=295–317 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103135 |pmid=30609913 |s2cid=58562467 |
Polygraph "[[lie detector]]" machines measure the physiological [[stress (medicine)|stress]] a subject endures in a number of measures while giving statements or answering questions. Spikes in stress indicators are purported to reveal lying. The accuracy of this method is widely disputed. In several well-known cases, application of the technique has been shown to have given incorrect results.{{Example needed|s|date=December 2021}} Nonetheless, it remains in use in many areas, primarily as a method for eliciting confessions or employment screening. The unreliability of polygraph results is the basis of the exclusion of such evaluations as admissible evidence in many courts, and the technique is generally perceived to be an example of [[pseudoscience]].<ref>Conti, Alli. [https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/qbeaeq/are-lie-detector-tests-complete-bullshit-1117 "Are Lie Detector Tests Complete Bullshit?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208004101/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/qbeaeq/are-lie-detector-tests-complete-bullshit-1117 |date=8 December 2017 }} ''VICE''. 17 November 2014. 7 December 2017.</ref>
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[[Utilitarian]] philosophers have supported lies that achieve good outcomes – white lies.<ref name="sundayobserver.lk" /> In his 2008 book, ''[[How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time]]'', [[Iain King]] suggested a credible rule on lying was possible, and he defined it as: "Deceive only if you can change behaviour in a way worth more than the trust you would lose, were the deception discovered (whether the deception actually is exposed or not)."<ref>''[[How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time]]'', (2008), Iain King, p. 148.</ref>
Stanford
* A disinterested observer would conclude that the benefits outweigh the harms
* There is no alternative
* If everyone in similar circumstances acted similarly, society would be no worse off
[[Aristotle]] believed no general rule on lying was possible, because anyone who advocated lying could never be believed, he said.<ref>''How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time'', (2008), Iain King, p. 147.</ref> The [[philosopher]]s [[St. Augustine]], [[St. Thomas Aquinas]], and [[Immanuel Kant]], condemned all lying.<ref name="sundayobserver.lk">{{cite news|url=
In ''[[Lying (Harris book)|Lying]]'', neuroscientist [[Sam Harris]] argues that lying is negative for the liar and the person who
In ''[[Human, All Too Human]]'', philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] suggested that those who refrain from lying may do so only because of the difficulty involved in maintaining lies. This is consistent with his general philosophy that divides (or ranks) people according to strength and ability; thus, some people tell the truth only out of weakness.
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==Cultural references==
[[File:Scap - Pinocchio.jpg|alt=Drawing of a puppet with a long nose|thumb|[[Pinocchio]], a symbol of untruthfulness]]
* [[Carlo Collodi]]'s [[Pinocchio]] is a wooden puppet character often led into trouble by his propensity to lie; his nose grows with every one. Hence, long noses have become a [[caricature]] of liars.
* ''[[The Boy Who Cried Wolf]]'', a [[fable]] attributed to [[Aesop]] about a boy who continually lies that a [[wolf]] is coming. When a wolf does appear, nobody believes him anymore.
* A famous anecdote by [[Parson Weems]] claims that [[George Washington]] once cut at a cherry tree with a hatchet when he was a small child. His father asked him who cut the cherry tree and Washington confessed his crime with the words: "I'm sorry, father, I cannot tell a lie."
* ''[[To Tell the Truth]]'' was the originator of a genre of game shows with three contestants claiming to be a person only one of them is.
* [[Glenn Kessler (journalist)|Glenn Kessler]], a journalist at ''[[The Washington Post]]'', awards one to four [[Pinocchio]]s to politicians in his [[Glenn Kessler (journalist)#Washington Post Fact Checker|Washington Post Fact Checker blog]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/fact-checker/2011/01/welcome_to_the_new_fact_checke.html |title=Guide to Washington Post Fact Checker Rating Scale |publisher=Voices.washingtonpost.com |date=29 December 2011 |access-date=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130154007/http://voices.washingtonpost.com/fact-checker/2011/01/welcome_to_the_new_fact_checke.html |archive-date=30 November 2011 |url-status=
* The cliché "All is fair in love and war",<ref>1620 T. Shelton tr. Cervantes' Don Quixote ii. xxi. ''Love and warre are all one. It is lawfull to use sleights and stratagems to attaine the wished end''.</ref><ref>1578 Lyly Euphues I. 236 ''Anye impietie may lawfully be committed in loue, which is lawlesse.''</ref> asserts justification for lies used to gain advantage in these situations.
* [[Sun Tzu]] declared that "All warfare is based on deception." [[Machiavelli]] advised in ''[[The Prince]]'' that a prince must hide his behaviors and become a "great liar and deceiver."<ref>Machiavelli, Niccolo, The Prince, Chap. 18</ref>
* [[Thomas Hobbes]] wrote in ''[[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|Leviathan]]'': "In war, force and fraud are the two cardinal virtues."
* The concept of a [[memory hole]] was first popularized by [[George Orwell]]'s [[utopian and dystopian fiction|dystopian novel]], ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', where [[the Party (Nineteen Eighty-Four)|the Party]]'s [[Ministry of Truth]] systematically re-created all potential historical documents, in effect re-writing all of history to match the often-changing state [[propaganda]]. These changes were complete and undetectable.
* In the film ''[[Big Fat Liar]]'', the story producer Marty Wolf (a notorious and proud liar) steals a story from student Jason Shepard, telling of a character whose lies become out of control to the point where each lie he tells causes him to grow in size.
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Zoroaster teaches that there are two powers in the universe; [[Asha]], which is truth, order, and that which is real, and [[Asha|Druj]], which is "the Lie". Later on, the Lie became personified as [[Angra Mainyu]], a figure similar to the Christian [[Devil]], who was portrayed as the eternal opponent of [[Ahura Mazda]] (God).
[[Herodotus]], in his mid-fifth-century BC account of Persian residents of the [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], reports that Persian youths, from their fifth year to their twentieth year, were instructed in three things – "to ride a horse, to draw a bow, and to speak the Truth".<ref name=hero>{{cite book| author = Herodotus
In [[Achaemenid Persia]], the lie, ''drauga'' (in Avestan: ''[[Asha|druj]]''), is considered to be a [[Seven deadly sins|cardinal sin]] and it was punishable by death in some extreme cases. [[Persepolis Administrative Archives|Tablets discovered]] by archaeologists in the 1930s <ref name="OIP_117">{{cite book|author1=Garrison, Mark B. |author2=Root, Margaret C. |url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/PUB/SRC/OIP/117/OIP117.html |title=Seals on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Volume 1. Images of Heroic Encounter'' (OIP 117)'' |publisher=Online Oriental Institute Publications |location=Chicago |year=2001 |access-date=9 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105203909/http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/PUB/SRC/OIP/117/OIP117.html |archive-date= 5 January 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> at the site of Persepolis give us adequate evidence about the love and veneration for the culture of truth during the Achaemenian period. These tablets contain the names of ordinary Persians, mainly traders and warehouse-keepers.<ref name="EIR_Dandamayev_Elamite">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Persepolis Elamite Tablets|last=Dandamayev|first=Muhammad|year=2002|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|url=http://www.iranica.com/articles/persepolis-elamite-tablets|access-date=1 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121213704/http://www.iranica.com/articles/persepolis-elamite-tablets|archive-date=21 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Stanley Insler]] of [[Yale University]], as many as 72 names of officials and petty clerks found on these tablets contain the word ''truth''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Insler|first=Stanley|title=The Love of Truth in Ancient Iran|author-link=Stanley Insler|url=http://www.vohuman.org/Article/The%20Love%20of%20Truth%20in%20Ancient%20Iran.htm|year=1975|access-date=9 January 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505064033/http://www.vohuman.org/Article/The%20Love%20of%20Truth%20in%20Ancient%20Iran.htm|archive-date=5 May 2007|url-status=dead}} In {{cite book|editor1=Insler, Stanley |editor2=Duchesne-Guillemin, J.|title=The Gāthās of Zarathustra (Acta Iranica 8)|year=1975|publisher=Brill|location=Liege}}</ref> Thus, says Insler, we have ''Artapana'', protector of truth, ''Artakama'', lover of truth, ''Artamanah'', truth-minded, ''Artafarnah'', possessing splendour of truth, ''Artazusta'', delighting in truth, ''Artastuna'', pillar of truth, ''Artafrida'', prospering the truth, and ''Artahunara'', having nobility of truth.
It was [[Darius the Great]] who laid down the "ordinance of good regulations" during his reign. Darius' testimony about his constant battle against the Lie is found in the [[Behistun Inscription]]. He testifies:<ref>{{cite book| author = Brian Carr|author2=Brian Carr|author3=Indira Mahalingam| title =
He asks [[Ahuramazda]], God, to protect the country from "a (hostile) army, from famine, from the Lie".<ref>DPd inscription, lines 12–24: "Darius the King says: May Ahuramazda bear me aid, with the gods of the royal house; and may Ahuramazda protect this country from a (hostile) army, from famine, from the Lie! Upon this country may there not come an army, nor famine, nor the Lie; this I pray as a boon from Ahuramazda together with the gods of the royal house. This boon may Ahuramazda together with the gods of the royal house give to me! "</ref>
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* Augustine, St. "On Lying" and "Against Lying," in R.J. Deferrari, ed., ''Treatises on Various Subjects'' (New York, 1952).
* Bok, S. ''[[Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life]]'', 2d ed. (New York, 1989).
* {{Cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.0029-4624.2006.00610.x |last=Carson |first=Thomas L. |year=2006 |title=The Definition of Lying |journal=Noûs |volume=40 |pages=284–306 |issue=2|s2cid=143729366
* {{Cite journal |doi=10.2307/2025605 |last1=Chisholm |first1=R.M. |last2=Feehan |first2=T.D. |year=1977 |title=The intent to deceive |jstor=2025605 |journal=Journal of Philosophy |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=143–159}}
* Davids, P.H.; Bruce, F.F.; Brauch, M.T. & W.C. Kaiser, ''Hard Sayings of the Bible'' (InterVarsity Press, 1996).
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