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{{Short description|German-born physicist (1879–1955)}}
{{Redirect|Einstein||Einstein (disambiguation)|and|Albert Einstein (disambiguation)}}
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{{Infobox scientist
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* [[Institute for Advanced Study]] (1933–1955)
* [[California Institute of Technology]] (visits, 1931–1933)
* [[University of Oxford]] (visits, 1931–1933)<ref name="robinson24">{{cite book| first=Andrew | last=Robinson | author-link=W. Andrew Robinson | title=Einstein in Oxford | date=2024 | publisher=[[Bodleian Library Publishing]] | isbn=978-1-85124-638-0 }}</ref>
* [[Brandeis University]] (director, 1946–1947)
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'''Albert Einstein''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|n|s|t|aɪ|n}} {{respell|EYEN|styne}};<ref name="NDxay" /> {{IPA
Born in the [[German Empire]], Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the [[Kingdom of Württemberg]])<ref name="GEcitizen" group="note" /> the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss [[ETH Zurich|federal polytechnic school]] in [[Zürich]], graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the [[Swiss Patent Office]] in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the [[University of Zurich]]. In 1914, he moved to [[Berlin]] in order to join the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]] and the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]. In 1917, he became director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics]]; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]].<ref name="GEcitizen" group="note" /> In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, [[Adolf Hitler's rise to power|Adolf Hitler came to power]] in Germany. Horrified by the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|war of extermination]] against his fellow Jews,<ref name="zE9Bz" /> Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was granted [[American citizen]]ship in 1940.<ref name="BoyerDubofsky2001" /> On the eve of [[World War II]], he endorsed [[Einstein–Szilard letter|a letter]] to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] alerting him to the potential [[German nuclear weapons program]] and recommended that the US begin [[Manhattan Project|similar research]]. Einstein supported the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] but generally viewed the idea of [[nuclear weapon]]s with great dismay.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Albert Einstein on nuclear weapons {{!}} Wise International |url=https://wiseinternational.org/nuclear-monitor/802/albert-einstein-nuclear-weapons |access-date=23 October 2022 |website=wiseinternational.org}}</ref>
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Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the [[philosophy of science]].<ref name="xZQWt" /><ref name="3UiiT" /> In 1905, he published [[Annus mirabilis papers|four groundbreaking papers]], sometimes described as his ''[[annus mirabilis]]'' (miracle year).{{sfnp|Galison|2000|p=377}} These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained [[Brownian motion]], introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability of [[classical mechanics]] to account satisfactorily for the behavior of the [[electromagnetic field]]—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a [[general theory of relativity]] that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate [[gravitation]]. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the [[universe]] as a whole.<ref name="Nobel" /><ref name="NYT-20151124" />
In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to [[statistical mechanics]] and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of [[radiation]], in which light consists of particles, subsequently called [[photon]]s. With the
== Life and career ==
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The outbreak of the [[First World War]] in July 1914 marked the beginning of Einstein's gradual estrangement from the nation of his birth. When the "[[Manifesto of the Ninety-Three]]" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German thinkers that justified Germany's belligerence—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to distance himself from it and sign the alternative, eirenic "[[Manifesto to the Europeans]]" instead.{{sfnp|Scheideler|2002|p=333}}{{Sfnp|Weinstein|2015|pp=18–19}} However, this expression of his doubts about German policy did not prevent him from being elected to a two-year term as president of the [[German Physical Society]] in 1916.{{sfnp|Calaprice|Lipscombe|2005|loc=[{{GBurl|id=5eWh2O_3OAQC|pg=PR19}} "Timeline", p. xix]}} When the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics opened its doors the following year—its foundation delayed because of the war—Einstein was appointed its first director, just as Planck and Nernst had promised.<ref name="EXcH6" />
Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1920,<ref name="3gcYy" /> and a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1921|Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1921]]. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".<ref name="Nobel Prize" /> At this point some physicists still regarded the general theory of relativity
Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving the [[Einstein–de Haas effect]], contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development of [[Bose–Einstein statistics]].<ref name=dh />
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==== Refugee status ====
[[File:Einstein's landing card (5706142737).jpg|thumb|Landing card for Einstein's 26 May 1933 arrival in [[Dover]], England from [[Ostend]], Belgium,<ref name="robinson19" /> enroute to [[Oxford]]<ref name="robinson24" />]]
In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service|laws barring Jews from holding any official positions]], including teaching at universities.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} Historian [[Gerald Holton]] describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.{{sfnp|Holton|1984|p=}}
A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the [[German Student Union]] in the [[Nazi book burnings]], with Nazi propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}}<ref name="Jerome" /> In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend [[Max Born]], who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise."{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence".{{Sfnp|Einstein|1954|p=197}}
Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the [[Academic Assistance Council]], founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politician [[William Beveridge]] to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.<ref name="Albert Hall">{{cite web |url=https://www.royalalberthall.com/about-the-hall/news/2013/october/3-october-1933-albert-einstein-speaks-at-the-hall/ |title=3 October 1933 – Albert Einstein presents his final speech given in Europe, at the Royal Albert Hall |last=Keyte |first=Suzanne |date=9 October 2013 |website=Royal Albert Hall |access-date=20 June 2022}}</ref> He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament Commander [[Oliver Locker-Lampson]], who had become friends with him in the preceding years.<ref name="robinson19">{{cite book| first=Andrew | last=Robinson | author-link=W. Andrew Robinson | title=[[Einstein on the Run]] | publisher=[[Yale University Press]] | isbn=978-0-300-23476-3 | date=2019 }}</ref> Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his [[Cromer]] home in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of [[Roughton, Norfolk]]. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the ''Daily Herald'' on 24 July 1933.{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=422}}<ref name="3zIp7" />
[[File:Churchill and Einstein in 1933.jpg|thumb|[[Winston Churchill]] and Einstein at [[Chartwell]] House, 31 May 1933]]
Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet [[Winston Churchill]] at his home, and later, [[Austen Chamberlain]] and former Prime Minister [[Lloyd George]].{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2007|pp=419–420}} Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian [[Martin Gilbert]] notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist [[Frederick Lindemann]], to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.<ref name="Gilbert" /> Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put [[Allies of World War II|the Allies]]' technology ahead of theirs.<ref name="Gilbert" />
Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including [[Turkey]]'s Prime Minister, [[İsmet İnönü]], to whom he wrote in September 1933, requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals".<ref name="aDu8s" />
Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}} In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.<ref name="AP" /> In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.<ref group=note name="gnriE" /><ref name="Guardian" /> Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the [[Institute for Advanced Study]], in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], US, to become a resident scholar.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}}
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==== Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study ====
[[File:Einstein-formal portrait-35 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Einstein taken in 1935 at Princeton]]
On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] in London, with ''[[The Times]]'' reporting he was wildly cheered throughout.<ref name="Albert Hall" /> Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]],{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}}{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=649, 678}} noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany.<ref name="Arntzenius2011" /> At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their [[Jewish quota]]s, which lasted until the late 1940s.<ref name="Arntzenius2011" />
Einstein was still undecided
Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.<ref name="mzNc5" /> He was one of the four first selected (along with [[John von Neumann]], [[Kurt Gödel]], and [[Hermann Weyl]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Weyl |first1=Hermann |editor1-last=Pesic |editor1-first=Peter |title=Levels of Infinity: Selected Writings on Mathematics and Philosophy |date=2013 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=9780486266930 |page=5 |url={{GBurl|id=Dd-vAAAAQBAJ}} |access-date=30 May 2022 |quote=By 1933, Weyl... left for the newly-founded Institute for Advanced Studies at Princeton, where his colleagues included Einstein, Kurt Gödel, and John von Neumann.}}</ref>) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. [[Bruria Kaufman]], his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a [[unified field theory]] and to refute the [[Copenhagen interpretation|accepted interpretation]] of [[quantum physics]], both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. The [[Albert Einstein House]] was made a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1976.
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"Ladies (coughs) and gentlemen, our age is proud of the progress it has made in man's intellectual development. The search and striving for truth and knowledge is one of the highest of man's qualities ..."]]
{{Main|Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein}}
Per [[Lee Smolin]], "I believe what allowed Einstein to achieve so much was primarily a moral quality. He simply cared far more than most of his colleagues that the laws of physics have to explain everything in nature coherently and consistently."<ref>{{cite book| author=Walter Isaacson| title=Einstein: His Life and Universe| date=2007| pages=549–550}}</ref> Einstein expounded his spiritual outlook in a wide array of writings and interviews.<ref name="018QJ" /> He said he had sympathy for the impersonal [[pantheistic]] God of [[Spinozism|Baruch Spinoza's philosophy]].{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2008|p=[{{GBurl|id=G_iziBAPXtEC|p=325}} 325]}} He did not believe in a [[personal god]] who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.{{Sfnp|Calaprice|2000|p=218}} He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist",{{Sfnp|Isaacson|2008|p=[{{GBurl|id=cdxWNE7NY6QC|pg=PT390}} 390]}} preferring to call himself an agnostic,{{Sfnp|Calaprice|2010|p=[{{GBurl|id=G_iziBAPXtEC|p=340}} 340]}}<ref name="flickr2687" /> or a "deeply religious nonbeliever".{{Sfnp|Calaprice|2000|p=218}}
Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious [[Secular humanist|humanist]] and [[Ethical Culture]] groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the [[First Humanist Society of New York]],<ref name="mKToJ" /> and was an honorary associate of the [[Rationalist Association]], which publishes ''[[New Humanist]]'' in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the [[New York Society for Ethical Culture]], he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity."{{sfnp|Einstein|1995|p=[{{GBurl|id=9fJkBqwDD3sC|p=62}} 62]}}
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== Scientific career ==
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.<ref name="Bio" /><ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746" /> He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones.<ref name="Nobel" /><ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746" /> On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents.{{Sfnp|Stachel et al.|2008}}<ref name="NYT-20141204-DB" />
=== Statistical mechanics ===▼
==== Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics ====▼
{{Main|Statistical mechanics|thermal fluctuations|statistical physics}}▼
Einstein's first paper{{Sfnp|Einstein|1901}}<ref name="PubList" /> submitted in 1900 to ''[[Annalen der Physik]]'' was on [[capillary attraction]]. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret [[atom]]ic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.<ref name="PubList" />▼
==== Theory of critical opalescence ====▼
{{Main|Critical opalescence}}▼
Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to [[Rayleigh scattering]], which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.<ref name="L2N73" /> Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.▼
=== 1905 – ''Annus Mirabilis'' papers ===
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| "On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat"{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905c}} || [[Brownian motion]] || 11 May || 18 July || Explained empirical evidence for the [[atomic theory]], supporting the application of [[statistical physics]].
|-
| "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905d}} || [[Special relativity]] || 30 June || 26 September || Reconciled [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]]'s equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.<ref name="RhZ8x" />{{specify|reason=reliable sources claim that he was unaware of those empirical data and was motivated by the transormation properties of Maxwell's Equations.|date=August 2024}} Discredited the concept of a "[[luminiferous ether]]".<ref name="lhfJ9" />
|-
| "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?"{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905e}} || [[Mass–energy equivalence|{{nowrap|Matter–energy}} equivalence]] || 27 September || 21 November || Equivalence of matter and energy, ''E'' = ''mc''<sup>2</sup>, the existence of "[[rest energy]]", and the basis of nuclear energy.
|}
▲=== Statistical mechanics ===
▲==== Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics ====
▲{{Main|Statistical mechanics|thermal fluctuations|statistical physics}}
▲Einstein's first paper{{Sfnp|Einstein|1901}}<ref name="PubList" /> submitted in 1900 to ''Annalen der Physik'' was on [[capillary attraction]]. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret [[atom]]ic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.<ref name="PubList" />
▲==== Theory of critical opalescence ====
▲{{Main|Critical opalescence}}
▲Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to [[Rayleigh scattering]], which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.<ref name="L2N73" /> Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.
=== Special relativity ===
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==== Physical cosmology ====
{{Main|Physical cosmology}}
[[File:MillikanLemaitreEinstein.jpg|thumb|right|[[Robert Andrews Millikan|Robert A. Millikan]], [[Georges Lemaître]]
In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole.{{Sfnp|Einstein|1917a}} He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the [[cosmological constant]], into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of [[Mach's principle]] in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or [[Einstein's static universe]].{{Sfnp|Pais|1994|pp=285–286}}<ref name="iJwuX" />
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In a 1905 paper,{{Sfnp|Einstein|1905a}} Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (''[[quantum|quanta]]''). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with [[Robert Millikan]]'s detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of [[Compton scattering]].
Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency ''f'' is associated with a collection of photons with energy ''hf'' each, where ''h'' is the [[Planck constant]]. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave. But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the [[photoelectric effect]].{{sfnp|Einstein|1905a}} Light quanta were dubbed ''[[photons]]'' by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1926.<ref>{{cite book| author=Walter Isaacson| title=Einstein: His Life and Universe| date=2007| page=576}}</ref>
==== Quantized atomic vibrations ====
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==== Wave–particle duality ====
[[File:Albert Einstein 1921 (re-cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Einstein in 1921, photo by Harris & Ewing Studio]]
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a ''[[Privatdozent]]'' at the University of Bern.{{Sfnp|Pais|1982|p=522}} In "''Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung''" ("[[s:Translation:The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation|The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation]]"), on the [[quantization (physics)|quantization]] of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined [[momentum|momenta]] and act in some respects as independent, [[point particle|point-like particles]]. This paper introduced the ''photon'' concept
==== Zero-point energy ====
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==== Stimulated emission ====
In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'' that proposed the possibility of [[stimulated emission]], the physical process that makes possible the [[maser]] and the [[laser]].{{Sfnp|Einstein|1917b}}
This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Duncan |first1=Anthony |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1119627546 |title=Constructing quantum mechanics. Volume 1, The scaffold : 1900–1923 |last2=Janssen |first2=Michel |date=2019 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-258422-9 |edition=1st |location=Oxford |pages=133–142 |oclc=1119627546}}</ref>
==== Matter waves ====
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|bibcode=1915KNAB...18..696E
|url=http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/DL/publications/PU00012546.pdf
}}</ref> Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of [[magnetization]] is caused by the alignment ([[
A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated by [[Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz]], wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to the [[Ampère Museum]] in Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=San Miguel |first1=Alfonso |last2=Pallandre |first2=Bernard |date=13 March 2024 |title=Revisiting the Einstein-de Haas experiment: the Ampère Museum's hidden treasure |url=https://www.europhysicsnews.org/images/stories/news/epn_Einstein-de_Haas.pdf |journal=Europhysics News |pages=12–14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnston |first=Hamish |date=17 March 2024 |title=Einstein's only experiment is found in French museum |url=https://physicsworld.com/einsteins-only-experiment-is-found-in-french-museum/ |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Physics World |language=en-GB}}</ref>
==== Einstein as an inventor ====
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the [[Einstein refrigerator]]. This [[absorption refrigerator]] was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.<ref name="Goettling" /> On 11 November 1930, {{US patent|1781541}} was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company [[Electrolux]].{{refn |group=note |In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of [[Oxford University]] was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Alok |first=Jha |title=Einstein fridge design can help global cooling |work=The Guardian |date=21 September 2008 |access-date=22 February 2011 |url= https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/sep/21/scienceofclimatechange.climatechange |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110124172925/http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/sep/21/scienceofclimatechange.climatechange |archive-date=24 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump,<ref name="patents.google.com">{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/GB303065A/en?oq=GB303065 | title=Electrodynamic movement of fluid metals particularly for refrigerating machines }}</ref> sound reproduction device,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/DE590783C/en | title=Device, in particular for sound reproduction devices, in which changes in electrical current through magnetostriction cause movements of a magnetic body }}</ref> and several other household devices.<ref>Albert Einstein's patents. 2006. World Pat Inf. 28/2, 159–65. M. Trainer. doi: 10.1016/j.wpi.2005.10.012</ref>
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<ref name="Time">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,817454,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518022224/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,817454,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 May 2008 |title=ISRAEL: Einstein Declines |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=1 December 1952 |access-date=31 March 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="Botstein">{{cite book|author1=Peter Galison|author1-link=Peter Galison|author2=Gerald James Holton|author2-link=Gerald Holton|author3=Silvan S. Schweber|author3-link=Silvan S. Schweber|title=Einstein for the 21st Century: His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinforstcen00gali|url-access=limited|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-13520-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/einsteinforstcen00gali/page/n181 161]–164}}</ref>
<ref name="Times">[https://
<ref name="RR">{{cite web |title=Relaxed Einstein signs for a fellow violinist before sailing to Germany for the last time |url=http://www.rrauction.com/albert_einstein_signed_photo_to_joseph_zoellner.cfm |website=RR Auction |year=2010 |access-date=6 June 2012 |archive-date=24 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524160226/http://www.rrauction.com/albert_einstein_signed_photo_to_joseph_zoellner.cfm |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Albano-Müller">{{cite web |url=http://www.gandhiserve.org/streams/einstein.html |title=Einstein on Gandhi (Einstein's letter to Gandhi{{Snd}} Courtesy:Saraswati Albano-Müller & Notes by Einstein on Gandhi{{Snd}} Source: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem) |publisher=Gandhiserve.org |date=18 October 1931 |access-date=24 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117104005/http://www.gandhiserve.org/streams/einstein.html |archive-date=17 January 2012}}</ref>
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<ref name="z73PK">{{cite web |last=Einstein |first=Albert |year=1952 |title=On My Participation in the Atom Bomb Project |url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hiroshima/EinsteinResponse.shtml |via=atomicarchive.org |access-date=7 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828230457/http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hiroshima/EinsteinResponse.shtml |archive-date=28 August 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="Msb2q">{{cite book|last1=Rosenkranz|first1=Ze'ev|title=The Einstein Scrapbook|date=6 November 2002|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|location=Baltimore, Maryland|isbn=978-0-8018-7203-7|page=103}}</ref>
<ref name="BQH5A">{{cite news|title = The relative beauty of the violin|date = 28 January 2011|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/classical/features/the-relative-beauty-of-the-violin-2196313.html|work = [[The Independent]]|author = Duchen, Jessica|author-link = Jessica Duchen|access-date = 23 August 2017|archive-date = 22 July 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200722171721/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/classical/features/the-relative-beauty-of-the-violin-2196313.html|url-status = live}}</ref>
<ref name="aBOjz">{{cite news|title=Einstein and his love of music |date=January 2005 |url=http://www.pha.jhu.edu/einstein/stuff/einstein&music.pdf |publisher=[[Physics World]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828225916/http://www.pha.jhu.edu/einstein/stuff/einstein%26music.pdf |archive-date=28 August 2015 }}</ref>
<ref name="kGuWC">Article "Alfred Einstein", in ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'', ed. [[Stanley Sadie]]. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. {{ISBN|978-1-56159-174-9}}</ref>
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<ref name="GQrBZ">{{Cite book |last1 =O'Connor |first1 =J. J. |last2 =Robertson |first2 =E.F. |chapter =Albert Einstein |title =The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive |publisher =School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews |date =1997 |chapter-url =http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html |access-date =11 March 2007 |archive-date =13 February 2007 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070213223549/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html |url-status =live }}</ref>
<ref name="aJHxn">{{cite journal|last1=Oppenheimer|first1=J. Robert|author-link=J. Robert Oppenheimer|title=Oppenheimer on Einstein|journal=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]]|date=March 1979|volume=35|issue=3|page=38|url={{GBurl|id=7goAAAAAMBAJ|p=38}}|bibcode=1979BuAtS..35c..36O|doi=10.1080/00963402.1979.11458597|access-date=12 January 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="e5xd8">{{cite journal | title = Investigations into the origin of Einstein's Sink | journal = Studium | year = 2019 | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 260–268 | doi=10.18352/studium.10183| last1 = Pietrow | first1 = Alexander G.M. | doi-broken-date =
<ref name="1Jhcb">{{cite book |title=Lectures on quantum mechanics |first1=Ashok |last1=Das |publisher=Hindustan Book Agency |date=2003 |isbn=978-81-85931-41-8 |page=59}}</ref>
<ref name="oJBvd">{{cite book |title=Seven ideas that shook the universe |url=https://archive.org/details/sevenideasthatsh00spie_874 |url-access=limited |edition=2nd |first1=Nathan |last1=Spielberg |first2=Bryon D. |last2=Anderson |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-471-30606-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sevenideasthatsh00spie_874/page/n276 263]}}</ref>
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== Further reading ==
{{div col|colwidth=35em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brian |first=Denis |date=1996 |author-link=Denis Brian|title=Einstein: A Life |url=https://archive.org/details/einstein00deni |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley |isbn=978-0471114598}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brian |first=Denis |date=2005 |author-link=Denis Brian|title=The Unexpected Einstein: The Real Man Behind the Icon |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley|isbn=978-0471718406}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gimbel |first1=Steven |title=Einstein: His Space and Times |date=2015 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300196719}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gimbel |first1=Steven |title=Einstein's Jewish Science: Physics at the Intersection of Politics and Religion |date=2012 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-1421405544}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gordin |first1=Michael D. |title=Einstein in Bohemia |date=2020 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-17737-3 |language=en}}
* {{cite EB1922 |wstitle=Einstein, Albert|last1= Lindemann |first1= Frederick Alexander |author-link=Frederick Alexander Lindemann}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Schweber |first=Silvan S. |author-link=Silvan S. Schweber |date=2008 |title=Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius |url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinoppenhei00schw |url-access=registration |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02828-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stone |first=A. Douglas |date=2013 |title=Einstein and the Quantum |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13968-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinquantumq0000ston}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Weinberg |first1=Steven |author-link=Steven Weinberg|title=Einstein's mistakes |journal=Physics Today |year=2005 |volume=58 |issue=11 |pages=31–35 |doi=10.1063/1.2155755 |bibcode=2005PhT....58k..31W |doi-access=free}}
{{div col end}}
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{{Sister project links|Albert Einstein|wikt=no|n=no|s=Author:Albert Einstein|b=no|voy=no|v=no}}
{{Scholia|author}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=1630|name=Albert Einstein}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Albert Einstein}}
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[[Category:People from Ulm]]
[[Category:People who lost German citizenship]]
[[Category:People with multiple
[[Category:Philosophers of mathematics]]
[[Category:Philosophers of science]]
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