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===Human rights===
===Human rights===
{{main|Human rights in Syria}}
{{main|Human rights in Syria}}
[[Human rights in Syria]] are largely criticized by global organizations.<ref name="w.r.p555">[http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010 World Report 2010 Human Rights Watch World Report 2010], pg. 555.</ref> Since 1963, [[state of emergency|emergency rule]] has remained in effect which gives security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.<ref name="AmInt2009"/> The country is governed by a one-party state without free elections.<ref name="AmInt2009">[http://thereport.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria Amnesty International Report 2009, Syria]{{dead link|date=April 2011}}</ref> The authorities harass and imprison human rights activist and other critics of the government.<ref name=HRW>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OZ3a4M_oZccC&pg=PA486&dq=%22Human+Rights+Watch+World+Report+2005+Events+of+2004%22+syria&hl=en&ei=3g91TNjTB9mXOJ_C2M4G&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Human Rights Watch World Report 2005 Events of 2004], [[Human Rights Watch]] 2005. ISBN 1564323315.</ref> Rights of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled.<ref name="AmInt2009"/><ref name=HRW/> Women and ethnic minorities face discrimination.<ref name="AmInt2009"/><ref name=HRW/> According to [[Human Rights Watch]] in 2010, al-Assad had failed to improve Syria’s human rights record in the 10 years since he came to power.<ref name=GUARD>{{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Ian | last=Black | title=Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says | date=16 July 2010}}</ref> The organization states that Syria's human rights situation is one of the worst in the world.
[[Human rights in Syria]] are largely criticized by global organizations.<ref name="w.r.p555">[http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010 World Report 2010 Human Rights Watch World Report 2010], pg. 555.</ref> Since 1963, [[state of emergency|emergency rule]] has remained in effect which gives security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.<ref name="AmInt2009"/> The country is governed by a one-party state without free elections.<ref name="AmInt2009">[http://thereport.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria Amnesty International Report 2009, Syria]{{dead link|date=April 2011}}</ref> The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government.<ref name=HRW>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OZ3a4M_oZccC&pg=PA486&dq=%22Human+Rights+Watch+World+Report+2005+Events+of+2004%22+syria&hl=en&ei=3g91TNjTB9mXOJ_C2M4G&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Human Rights Watch World Report 2005 Events of 2004], [[Human Rights Watch]] 2005. ISBN 1564323315.</ref> Rights of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled.<ref name="AmInt2009"/><ref name=HRW/> Women and ethnic minorities face discrimination.<ref name="AmInt2009"/><ref name=HRW/> According to [[Human Rights Watch]] in 2010, al-Assad had failed to improve Syria’s human rights record in the 10 years since he came to power.<ref name=GUARD>{{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Ian | last=Black | title=Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says | date=16 July 2010}}</ref> The organization states that Syria's human rights situation is one of the worst in the world.


====Shabbiha====
====Shabbiha====

Revision as of 15:14, 3 May 2011

2011 Syrian uprising
Part of 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests
File:Syria Damascus Douma Protests 2011 - 22.jpg
Protest in Douma, Damascus
Date26 January 2011 (2011-01-26) – ongoing
Location
 Syria
Caused by
GoalsResignation of Bashar al-Assad[2][3]
Ending the state of emergency, Regime change,[4] Freedom,[5]
Recognition of the Kurds[6]
MethodsCivil resistance, demonstrations, nonviolent resistance, self-immolations, hunger strikes
StatusOngoing
ConcessionsAbolition of the Supreme State Security Court, lifting of the emergency law[7]
Casualties
Death(s)582[8]-719[9][10][11] civilians and
68[12]-89[13] security forces killed, 180-240 civilians missing[14][15]
InjuriesHundreds[16]
ArrestedThousands (as of April 29, 2011, according to Syrian rights organization Sawasiah)[17]

The 2011 Syrian uprising is a popular uprising taking place in Syria, which began on 26 January 2011. The uprising is influenced by concurrent protests in the region, and has been described as "unprecedented".[18][19] Like the revolutionary movements in Tunisia and Egypt, it has mainly, but not exclusively, taken the form of peaceful protests of various types, including marches and hunger strikes. It can therefore be said to amount to a sustained campaign of civil resistance, also called nonviolent resistance. Such resistance, while seeking to limit the incidence of violence in a conflict, is not based on an assumption that the regime being opposed will necessarily refrain from violence.[20]

In reacting to the largest uprising to take place in the country for decades, Syrian security forces have killed hundreds of protesters, and injured many more. United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has condemned the use of deadly force against protesters as "unacceptable".[21]

As protests continued, the Syrian government has made use of more extreme tactics of repression, sending in the military with tanks and snipers to fire at any person walking the streets. Water and electricity has been shut off in the city of Daraa, and security forces have begun confiscating flour and food.[10]

President Hafez al-Assad was in office for nearly 30 years; his son, President Bashar al-Assad, succeeded him in 2000.[22]


Background

History

Main article: History of Syria
Former President Hafez al-Assad (right), and his brother Rifaat al-Assad (left), who personally supervised the Hama massacre.
Bashar al-Assad

Syria was under an Emergency Law since 1962, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens. Syrian governments justified the state of emergency by pointing to the fact that Syria was in a state of war with Israel. Syrian citizens approve the President by referendum. Syria does not hold multi-party elections for its legislature.[23]

Since 1963, following the Ba'athist overthrow, Syria has been controlled by the secular Ba'ath Party.[24] Despite internal power changes, such as the 1966 coup and the 1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution, the Ba'ath Party has remained the sole authority in Syria.[25][26][27]

After the 1970 Revolution, President Hafez al-Assad led Syria for nearly 30 years, banning any opposing political party and any opposition candidate in any election. In 1982, at the climax of a six-year Islamic insurgency throughout the country, Hafez al-Assad conducted a scorched earth policy against the town of Hama to quell an Islamist revolt by the Sunni Muslim community, including the Muslim Brotherhood and others.[28] Tens of thousands of people, including 10–80,000 civilians, were killed in the Hama massacre.[27][29][30][31][32][33]

The issue of Hafez al-Assad's succession prompted the 1999 Latakia incident,[34] when violent protests and armed clashes, erupted following 1998 People's Assembly's Elections. The violent events were an explosion of a long-running feud between Hafez al-Assad and his younger brother Rifaat.[34] Two people were killed in fire exchanges between Syrian police and Rifaat's supporters during a police crack-down on Rifaat's port compound in Latakia. According to opposition sources, denied by the government, the protests resulted in hundreds of dead and injured.[35] Hafez al-Assad died one year later, from pulmonary fibrosis. He was succeeded by his son Bashar al-Assad, who was appointed after a constitutional amendment lowered the age requirement for President from 40 to his age of 34.[25][26][27] Bashar, who speaks French and English and has a British-born wife, was said to have "inspired hopes" for reform, and a "Damascus Spring" of intense political and social debate took place from 2000–01.

Kurdish-Arab riots have prompted increased tension since 2004. That year the Al-Qamishli riots against the government began in the northeastern city of Al-Qamishli. During a chaotic soccer match, some people raised Kurdish flags, and the match turned into a political conflict. In a brutal reaction by Syrian police and clashes between Kurdish and Arab groups, at least 30 people were killed,[36] with some claims indicating a casualty count of about 100 people.[37] Smaller clashes with Kurdish protesters and government measures have continued since.

The al-Assad family is a member of the minority and traditionally impoverished Alawite sect, an offshoot of Shiite Islam that numbers an estimated 6-12 percent of the Syrian population,[38][39][40][41] and has maintained "a tight grip" on Syria's security services, generating "deep resentment" among the Sunni Muslims[40] that make up about three quarters of Syria's population.[42] Minority Kurds have also protested and complained.[43] Al-Assad declared that his state was immune from the kinds of mass protests that took place in Egypt.[44] Bouthaina Shaaban, a presidential adviser, blamed Sunni clerics and preachers for inciting Sunnis to revolt, such as Qatar-based Sheik Youssef al-Qaradawi in a sermon in Doha on 25 March.[45] According to the New York Times, the Syrian government has relied "almost exclusively" on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising. His younger brother Maher al-Assad, commands the army’s Fourth Armored Division, and his brother-in-law, Assef Shawkat, is deputy chief of staff of the army. His family is said to fear that failure to take a hard line on protesters could embolden them, bringing much larger crowds into the streets.[40]

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Syria

Human rights in Syria are largely criticized by global organizations.[46] Since 1963, emergency rule has remained in effect which gives security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.[47] The country is governed by a one-party state without free elections.[47] The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government.[48] Rights of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled.[47][48] Women and ethnic minorities face discrimination.[47][48] According to Human Rights Watch in 2010, al-Assad had failed to improve Syria’s human rights record in the 10 years since he came to power.[49] The organization states that Syria's human rights situation is one of the worst in the world.

Shabbiha

Shabbiha (Arabic: الشبيحة), from the word (Shabah, شبح) meaning ghost, is a gang consisting of more than 3000 members being funded by Bashar's brother, Numeer Al Asad, have the authority to do anything toward the people protesting against the government, even though the protesters have no weapons.[50] Members of Shabbiha are described by newspapers and media news channels as Assad’s Mercenaries.[51]

Shabbiha are accused for breaking the human rights not only by local newspapers and channels, but also by international media, especially after hundreds of videos which have been uploaded through social networks websites like Facebook and YouTube. [52]

2011

While al-Assad permitted radio stations to play Western pop music, websites such as Wikipedia, Youtube, Facebook, and Amazon were blocked until 1 January 2011, when all citizens were permitted to sign up for high speed internet, and those sites were allowed.[53] However, a 2007 law requires Internet cafes to record all comments that users post on online chat forums.[54]

In an interview published 31 January 2011, al-Assad declared it was time to reform, that the protests in Egypt, Tunisia, and Yemen indicated a "new era" was coming to the Middle East, and that Arab rulers needed to do more to accommodate their peoples' rising political and economic aspirations.[55][56]

Uprising

Main article: Timeline of the 2011 Syrian uprising

Early protests

"Down with al-Assad". Regime-critical graffiti was an early sign of the uprising

The protest movement in Syria was at first modest, and took a while to gain momentum. The events began on 26 January 2011, when Hasan Ali Akleh from Al-Hasakah poured gasoline on himself and set himself on fire, in the same way Tunisian Mohamed Bouazizi had in Tunis on 17 December 2010. According to eyewitnesses, the action was "a protest against the Syrian government".[57][58] Two days later, on 28 January 2011, an evening demonstration was held in Ar-Raqqah, to protest the killing of two soldiers of Kurdish descent.[59]

On 3 February, a "Day of Rage" was called for in Syria from 4–5 February on social media sites Facebook and Twitter. Protesters demanded governmental reform, but most protests took place outside of Syria, and were small.[60][61][62][63] The only known action within Syria took place on 5 February, when hundreds of protesters in Al-Hasakah participated in a mass demonstration, calling for al-Assad's departure. Syrian authorities arrested dozens, and a demonstration was quickly triggered.[64] After the failure of attempts to arrange a "Day of Rage," Al Jazeera described the country as "a kingdom of silence". It identified the key factors underlying Syrian stability as the country's strict security measures, the popularity of President al-Assad, and fear of potential sectarian violence in the aftermath of a government ouster (akin to neighboring Iraq).[65]

External videos
video icon Protests in Damascus, 17 February 2011 on YouTube

The protest movement was inspired by the situation in Libya, and provoked by alleged ties between the Syrian and Libyan government. The Reform Party of Syria claimed that "al-Assad is sending arms to Gaddafi to kill his people with".[66] On 22 February, about 200 people gathered outside the Libyan embassy in Damascus to protest against the Libyan regime, and ask that the ambassador resign. Government security forces took steps to disperse the demonstration; 14 people were arrested but later released, and several more were beaten by policemen.[67][68][69] On 6 March, TIME magazine said that the commitment could still be found among the Syrian youth, but that what was needed was a starting point.[70] Ribal al-Assad said that it was almost time for Syria to be the next domino.[71]

Escalation

File:Burnt car 17 April 2011 Banias Syria.jpg
A sign over a burned car says: "Caution! You are in Baniyas, not in Israel". Another says: "Down with the regime".

On 15 March, the protest movement began to escalate, as simultaneous demonstrations took place in major cities across Syria.[72] Thousands of protestors gathered in al-Hasakah, Daraa, Deir ez-Zor, and Hama. There were some clashes with security forces, according to reports from dissident groups. In Damascus, a smaller group of 200 men grew spontaneously to about 1,500 men. Damascus has not seen such protests since the 1980s. The official Facebook page called "Syrian Revolution 2011" showed pictures of supportive demonstrations in Cairo, Nicosia, Helsinki, Istanbul and Berlin. There were also unconfirmed news that Syrian revolution supporters of Libyan descent, stormed into the Syrian Embassy in Paris.[73][74][75][76][77] On 18 March the most serious unrest to take place in Syria for decades erupted.[78] After online calls for a "Friday of Dignity" (Arabic: جمعة الكرامة), after Friday prayers, thousands of protesters demanding an end to alleged government corruption took to the streets of cities across Syria.[79] The protesters were met with a violent crackdown orchestrated by state security forces. The protesters chanted "God, Syria, Freedom" and anti-corruption slogans.[80]

Increasingly, the city of Daraa became the focal point for the uprising. On 20 March, thousands took to the streets of Daraa for a third day, shouting slogans against the country's emergency law. One person was killed and scores injured as security forces opened fire on protesters.[81] The courthouse, the Ba'ath party headquarters in the city, and Rami Makhlouf's Syriatel building were all set on fire.[82] The next day, hundreds of people protested in Jassem, and there were also reports of protests in Baniyas, Homs and Hama.[83][84] Al-Assad made some conciliatory gestures, but crowds continued to gather in and around the Omari mosque in Dara’a, chanting their demands: the release of all political prisoners; trials for those who shot and killed protesters; the abolition of Syria’s 48-year emergency law; more freedoms; and an end to pervasive corruption.[85] Mobile phone connections to Daraa were cut during the day and checkpoints were set up throughout the city and manned by soldiers.[86]

Uprising and concessions

File:Hafez Assad Statue 15 april 2011 - 01.jpg
Protesters in Daraa tore down and kicked the statue of Hafez al-Assad, the former president of Syria.
File:Homs Syria Protests 2011 - 03.jpg
Thousands of demonstrators gathered for Maghrib (Dusk) prayer in New Clock Square in central Homs.

On 25 March, after new online calls for a big demonstration called "Friday of Glory" (Arabic: جمعة العزة), tens of thousands took to the streets in protests around the nation. Troops opened fire during protests in the southern part of Syria and killed peaceful demonstrators, according to witnesses and news reports.[87] Increasingly, the crackdown against the protests became more violent. There were reports that at least 20 people were killed in protests in Daraa which drew over 100,000 people.[88][89] A statue of Hafez al-Assad was dismantled and set on fire.[90] The governor's home was also set on fire.[90] There were also reports of protests in Damascus, Deir ez-Zor, Homs, Latakia and Raqqa.[88][91] A witness said that in Sanamayn, security forces killed 20 people.[91][92] 17 people were killed during a demonstration on the way to Daraa, while 40 were killed near Omari Mosque, 25 died in al-Sanameen in Homs, 4 in Latakia, 3 in Damascus.[93]

Religious and political leaders in exile began to get involved in the conflict. The Sunni cleric Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi gave a sermon in Qatar, in which he said:

Today the train of revolution has arrived at a station that it was destined to reach, the Syrian station. It isn't possible for Syria to detach itself from the history of the Arab nation.[94]

AFP reported that Syrian opposition leaders-in-exile called in Paris for the deposition of President al-Assad, asking France to maintain pressure on the Syrian leader to "halt the killing of innocents."[93]

On 26 March, the first signs were seen that the government was willing to make concessions to the protestors, when al-Assad announced the release of as many as 200 political prisoners.[95] The next day, Buthaina Shaaban, al-Assad's media adviser, stated that the emergency law would be lifted, without giving any indication of when this would happen.[96] On 29 March, the Syrian newspaper Al-Watan reported that a major cabinet reshuffle was coming,[97] and later that day, al-Assad accepted the official resignation of the government led by Muhammad Naji al-Otari, while the latter would serve as caretaker prime minister until a new government was selected and officially announced.[98]

Forces loyal to al-Assad also mobilized. The Grand Mufti of Syria, Ahmad Bader Hassoun, said "Any citizen has the right to protest and call for freedom, but I will tell you, all those behind the bloodshed will be penalized. There are no army officials who opened fire at protesters, they only retaliated out of self-defense. After what happened, there should be reconciliation between the people. There are some corrupters in the country and the corrupters should be penalized".[99] On 29 March, hundreds of thousands demonstrated in support of President al-Assad in Damascus, Aleppo, Hasaka, Homs, Tartous and Hama.[97][100][101] On 30 March, al-Assad made a speech blaming foreign conspirators for the uprising and declaring that the emergency law would not be lifted as previously confirmed by Bouthaina Shaaban, and instead that the lifting of the emergency law would be left to studies for future application.[102] A YouTube video of a CNN report shows Syrian State television footage of a woman allegedly attacking al-Assad’s car following his speech on Wednesday.[103] Disappointed by al-Assad's speech, protesters took to the street in Latakia, where they were fired on by police.[104][105] The next day, Syrian Arab News Agency (SANA) reported that al-Assad issued a decree raising the wages of state employees, starting 1 April.[106]

April

On 8 April 2011, protesters in Douma, a Damascus suburb, display signs saying "No for destroying" and "Peaceful"

After online calls for a "Friday of Martyrs" (Arabic: جمعة الشهداء) on 1 April, thousands of protesters emerged from Friday's prayers and took to the streets in multiple cities around Syria. Security forces opened fire on about 1,000 protesters in the suburb of Damascus, Douma, killing eight. In Damascus, hundreds gathered in Al Rifai mosque to protest after Friday prayers; however, government forces reportedly sealed the mosque and attacked those who tried to leave. Further south, in a small city outside Daraa, a demonstrator was killed during a protest.[107][108] The conflict gradually began to attract more attention from the international community. On 1 April, Syrian authorities closed a border crossing between Syria and Turkey and banned Turkish and foreign reporters from entering Syria.[109] The next day Turkish Prime Minister Recep Erdogan said that he would put pressure on al-Assad to implement reforms.[110]

On 3 April, al-Assad appointed Adel Safar as the new Syrian prime minister and charged him with the task of forming a new government.[111] On 6 April, al-Assad's government offered concessions to Sunnis and Kurds. The government allowed teachers once again to wear the niqab,[95] closed the country's only casino,[112] and offered that tens of thousands of Kurds residing in Syria would soon be granted Syrian citizenship.[113]

External videos
video icon Unknown Gunmen Filmed at Syria Demo
(YouTube: Associated Press.)
8 April 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
video icon Protests in Homs, Syria, 18 April 2011 on YouTube

The day of 8 April became known as the "Friday of Resistance" (Arabic: جمعة الصمود), as thousands of protesters took to the streets in Daraa, Latakia, Tartus, Edlib, Baniyas, Qamishli, Homs and the Damascus suburb of Harasta, in the largest protest yet.[114][115] 27 anti-government protesters were killed in Daraa and many other were wounded when security forces opened fire with rubber bullets and live rounds to disperse stone-throwing protesters.[115][116] At least three people were killed in Damascus' suburb city of Harasta and two people were killed and dozens wounded in Homs, Syria's third largest city.[117] A human rights group said 37 people were killed in uprising across the country on this Friday.[95]

Towards the middle of April, uprising became more extensive, and more violent. On 15 April, tens of thousands of people held protests in several Syrian cities, including Baniyas, Latakia, Baida, Homs, and Deir ez-Zor.[118][119] Al Jazeera reported that up to 50,000 protesters trying to enter Damascus from the Douma suburb were dispersed by security forces using tear gas, while in the Barzeh district of the capital violence erupted when dozens of armed men in plain clothes surrounded about 250 protesters rallying in front of a mosque.[120] On the other hand, thousands demonstrated in Daraa, but security forces were not visible in the city, as the authorities reportedly allowed the protests to take place.[119] Al-Assad announced the release of hundreds of prisoners that were "not involved in criminal acts", and that a new government had been formed (see Cabinet of Syria).[121][122]

Continued violence

File:Syrian Army in Daraa 9 April 2011.jpg
Armed security forces in Daraa, 9 April

Two days later, al-Assad spoke to the People's Assembly in a televised speech, stating that he expected his government to lift the emergency law the following day, and acknowledging there is a gap between citizens and the state, and that government has to "keep up with the aspirations of the people".[123] On 19 April, the government approved a bill lifting the country's emergency laws.[124] This was the first time in 48 years that the state of emergency had been lifted.[124] On April 21, al-Assad signed the decrees for ending the state of emergency, abolishing the Supreme State Security Court (SSSC), and regulating the right to peaceful demonstrations.[125][126]

The lifting of the emergency law failed to placate the protesters. On 22 April, the country experienced its biggest and bloodiest day in the current series of uprising as tens of thousands took to the streets.[127] Protests occurred in the capital, Damascus, and in at least ten other cities in the country.[128] Hundreds of protesters in central Damascus were dispersed, but thousands congregated in towns ringing the capital.[128] According to the protesters' own reports, at least 70 people were killed nationwide when security forces opened fire on the demonstrators.[129] Immediate verification was difficult because Syria had expelled almost all members of the international media from the country,[127] although it eventually emerged that over 100 had been killed.[130][131]

On 23 April, the following day, funerals for fallen protesters occurred throughout the country. Snipers reportedly fired, killing 8 people in Daraa, including 5 members of the security forces.[132][133] That night, plainclothes security forces raided homes and arrested activists.[134] Dozens of citizens went missing following the Good Friday protests, with one human rights group reporting 217 disappearances between Friday and Sunday.[135]

On 25 April, the Syrian government deployed tanks to Daraa, which was an early focal point of the protests, killing at least 25 people.[136] The tanks were accompanied by soldiers—estimates varied from hundreds to 6,000—rooftop snipers, and the cutting of water, power, and phone lines. One resident said that protesters had burned an army car and taken a soldier hostage.[136] The government also closed the nearby border with Jordan.[137] At least one high-ranking Syrian military commander refused to participate in the operation against Daraa.[138] A resident of Daraa said to media reporters over the phone: "Let Obama come and take Syria. Let Israel come and take Syria. Let the Jews come. Anything is better than Bashar Assad."[139]

U.S. President Barack Obama condemned the "outrageous" use of violence,[140] and the U.S. prepared to freeze Syrian officials' American assets.[141] EU countries, including permanent Security Council members France and the U.K., pushed the U.N. for international sanctions, though it remained unclear whether permanent council members Russia and China would support them.[142] Syria said it was responding to an Islamist-inspired uprising.[143]

On 28 April, Al Jazeera aired footage of what appear to be injured soldiers receiving aid from civilians in Syria, reportedly after they refused orders to shoot at protesters and were fired upon by loyalist units. The network warned it could not independently verify the authenticity of the footage but claimed that it came from a "reliable source".[144]

Despite a harsh crackdown in Deraa, Douma, and other towns, protesters appeared undeterred on 29 April, when thousands rallied in Aleppo, Homs, Deir Alzour, Sheik Meskeen, Damascus, and other areas across Syria. An anonymous person posted what appeared to be video of soldiers in Sheik Meskeen attacking and killing unarmed protesters with live ammunition.[145] Al Jazeera reported that at least 50 people were claimed dead as a result of the security forces' response to the protests, which started after Friday noon prayers.[146] Reuters put the death toll at 62.[147]

Alleged Iranian involvement

U.S. president Barack Obama has recently accused Iran of secretly aiding Bashar al-Assad in his efforts to quell the protests.[148] U.S. Ambassador Susan Rice has stated that there is evidence of active Iranian support for the Syrian government's crackdown on demonstrators.[149] Iran has denied any involvement in suppressing the protests.[150]

Reactions

Domestic

Arrests and convictions

Days before protests planned for 5 February, Syrian authorities arrested several political activists, such as businessman Ghassan al-Najar, leader of the Islamic Democratic movement,[151][152] the writer Ali al-Abdallah,[153] Abbas Abbas, from the Syrian Communist Party[154] and several other political personalities of Kurdish background, such as Adnan Mustafa.[155]

On 14 February, blogger and student Tal al-Mallohi was convicted of spying for the United States and sentenced to five years in prison. Washington denied these allegations and asked for al-Mallohi's immediate release. On 15 February under pressure from human rights organizations, the Syrian government released Ghassan al-Najar after he went on a hunger strike following his arrest for calling for mass protests.[156]

On 22 March Syrian authorities arrested Loay Hussein, a human rights campaigner.[157] On 25 March there were reports of mass arrests and detentions of protesters taking place.[94]

Disappearances

On 29 April Dorothy Parvaz of Al Jazeera arrived in Damascus and has not been heard of since [158]

Censorship

On 5 February, Internet services were said to have been curbed, although Facebook and YouTube were reported to have been restored three days later.[159] Suggestions were made that easing the ban could be a way to track activists.[160]

Concessions

On 19 March by legislative decree 35, al-Assad shortened the length of mandatory army conscription from 21 months to 18 months.[161][162]

On 20 March, the Syrian government announced that it would release 15 children who had been arrested on 6 March for writing pro-democracy graffiti.[81]

On 23 March, by regional decree 120, Faisal Ahmad Kolthoum was removed as Governor of Daraa.[19][163]

On 24 March, al-Assad's media adviser, Buthaina Shaaban, said that the government will be "studying the possibility of lifting the emergency law and licensing political parties". The Syrian government also announced a cut in personal taxation rates, an increase in public sector salaries of 1,500 Syrian pounds ($32.60 US) a month and pledges to increase press freedom, create more employment opportunities, and reduce corruption.[88][164][165]

On 26 March, Syrian authorities freed more than 200 political prisoners – 70 according to other sources – mostly Islamists, held in Saidnaya prison.[166]

On 27 March, Bouthaina Shaaban confirmed that the emergency law would be lifted, but did not say when.[96]

On 29 March, the Syrian Government submitted its official resignation to al-Assad.[98]

On 31 March, al-Assad set up a committee of legal experts to study legislation that would pave the way to replacing decades-old emergency laws. The committee was to complete its study by 25 April. Al-Assad also set up a judicial committee tasked with investigating the circumstances that led to the death of Syrian civilians and security forces in the cities of Daraa and Latakia.[167]

On 6 April, it was reported that teachers would once again be allowed to wear the niqab, and that the government has closed the country's only casino.[112]

On 7 April, al-Assad relieved the Governor of Homs province from his duties and issued a decree granting nationality to thousands of Kurds living in the eastern al Hasakah province[168] while the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the 48 Kurds were released, more than a year after they were arrested in the eastern city of Raqqa.[169] This came a day after al-Assad met with Kurdish tribal leaders to discuss citizenship issues concerning the Kurds of Syria’s north-eastern provinces, as hundreds of thousands of Kurds were stripped of their citizenship rights as a result of the 1962 national census.[170]

On 16 April, al-Assad spoke to the People's Assembly in a televised speech, stating that he expected his government to lift the emergency law the following week. He acknowledged there is a gap between citizens and the state, and that government has to "keep up with the aspirations of the people".[123] Later in the day he welcomed the new ministers in the Cabinet of Syria with a speech containing more specifics (full text). He spoke of the importance of reaching "a state of unity, unity between the government, state institutions and the people"; stressed the need for dialogue and consultation in multiple channels, popular support, trust and transparency; explained the interrelatedness of reform and the needs of citizens for services, security and dignity. He stated the first priorities were citizenship for Kurds, lifting the state of emergency in the coming week or at the latest the week after, regulating demonstrations without chaos and sabotage, political party law, local administration law in both structure and elections, and new and modern media law, all with public timeframes. The next topics were unemployment, the economy, rural services, attracting investment, the public and private sectors, justice, corruption, petty bribery, tax reform and reducing government waste, followed by tackling government itself with more participation, e-government, decentralization, effectiveness and efficiency, as well as closer cooperation with civil society, mass organizations and trade unions.

On 19 April, a bill was approved by the Syrian government to lift the emergency law.[171] Two days later, al-Assad signed legislative decree 50 into law.[125][126]

On 30 April, Prime Minister Adel Safar announced a comprehensive plan for reforms in the coming weeks in three areas: political reform, security and judicial reform; economic reform and social policies; and the development of administration and governmental work.[172][173]

Counter-demonstrations

On 22 March, there were reports in The Guardian that the Syrian authorities had been organising pro-Assad rallies and distributing propaganda blaming the unrest on saboteurs and infiltrators.[174] On 25 March, pro-Assad rallies were held in Damascus.[94]

Other

On 8 March, SANA, the official Syrian news agency, published an article on its website titled "President al-Assad issued a decree provides for a legislative grant amnesty for political crimes committed before the date of 2011-03-08". Three hours later, the publication was removed.[175] Hours later, Syrian authorities released Haitham al-Maleh, an 80-year-old former judge, one of al-Assad's most outspoken critics, under an amnesty marking the anniversary of the 1963 coup which brought the Ba'ath Party to power.[176][177] Twelve Syrian human rights organisations called on the government to scrap the state of emergency which has been in effect for almost 50 years.[178]

On 12 March, newly released Haitham al-Maleh announced in a YouTube video his support and assistance to the Syrian youth who are behind the new wave of protests and hoped that he will soon see democracy in Syria.[179]

On 16 February regime critic and director of the Organisation for Democracy and Freedom in Syria (ODFS) Ribal al-Assad, son of Rifaat al-Assad and cousin to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, held a press conference in London, in which he made it clear that he "does not want to see a Syrian revolution, but a peaceful change of power".[180] On April 5 interview, Ribal al-Assad warned of Syria's risk for a civil war, saying[181]

Everyone in Syria has seen what is happening in Arab countries but in Syria there are many minorities. Everyone has arms and everyone will want to defend their own people. It is like what happened in Iraq.

International

Supranational

States

File:A Collage of Syrian Martyrs.jpg
A demonstrator in Cairo holding a collage of some of those killed in the uprising.
Rally in 2011 in support of Syrian President al-Assad in Sydney
Demonstration in Montreal on 27 March, in solidarity with the anti-regime protestors
  •  Australia – On 25 March, Australian foreign minister Kevin Rudd said: "we are deeply sceptical about the official explanations as to what has happened with the various killings which have occurred in Daraa .... And we call directly on the Syrian Government to exercise restraint in their response to peaceful protest seeking democratic change."[184]
  •  Canada – On 21 March, Canadian Foreign Affairs Minister Lawrence Cannon stated: "Canada deplores the multiple deaths and injuries following protests in several Syrian cities over the weekend."[185] On 24 April, Foreign Affairs advised Canadians not to travel to Syria, and for those in Syria to consider leaving by commercial means while these were still available.[186]
  •  France – The Foreign Ministry condemned the violence carried out against demonstrators, and called for political prisoners to be freed.[187] On 23 March, French foreign ministry spokesman Bernard Valero called on Syria to carry out immediate political reforms.[188]
  •  Germany – On 24 March, German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle said: "The violence must end immediately. The Syrian government must make sure that basic human and civil rights, as well as the rule of law, is observed,"[189]
  •  Greece – On 24 March, Greek Foreign Minister Dimitrios Droutsas said: "The use of violence to repress protests that has led to the murder of citizens is absolutely condemned. We call on the government of Syria to guarantee the fundamental rights of its citizens".[190]
  •  Iraq – On 3 April, Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki called Syria's President and voiced Iraq’s support of Syria "in the face of conspiracies targeting Syria’s stability".[191]
  •  Israel – On 24 March, Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs Avigdor Lieberman said: "the same principles, activities the Western world [has taken] in Libya ... I hope to see those regarding the Iranian regime and the Syrian regime.".[192] Israel expressed concern that Assad will try to divert the attention from the uprising in Syria and try to provoke some border incidents with Israel in the Golan Heights, Lebanon or Gaza or even start a war with Israel in order to unite the Syrian people against Israel and to divert the media attention from the uprising in Syria.[193][194]
  •  Lebanon – On 31 March, Prime Minister-designate Najib Mikati commended the "ending of the chance to cause strife in Syria" as well as the Syrian people’s support for their president[195] Also, President Michel Suleiman highlighted the importance of stability in Syria, and its positive impact on the security of and economic situation in Lebanon and Syria.[196]
  •  Mexico – Mexico's government issued a statement through the Secretariat of Foreign Affairs in which it condemns the violent events, calls on Syrian authorities to refrain from the use of force and to facilitate political dialogue which includes its citizens more.[197]
  •  Norway – On 24 March, Norwegian minister of foreign affairs Jonas Gahr Støre condemned the violence, saying: "Norway urges the authorities of Syria not to use violence against peaceful protesters, to respect the freedom of speech and assembly, and to enter into a dialogue with the people about their legitimate demands".[198]
  •  Qatar – On 3 April, Qatari Emir Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani sent a letter to Syrian President al-Assad voicing Qatar’s support for Syria amid attempts at destabilization.[199]
  •  Russia – On 6 April, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev called al-Assad to voice support for the latter’s decision to make reforms in his country.[200]
  •  Saudi Arabia – On 28 March, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia expressed his support to the Syrian leadership in a telephone conversation with President al-Assad, claiming that the uprising is in fact a conspiracy targeting the legitimate government. Relations between Syria and Saudi Arabia have been strained and even hostile for decades. However, the position of the Saudi monarch is an indication of their recent improvement.[201]
  •  Sudan – On 6 April, Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir called al-Assad to voice his support for Syria against "the attempts aimed at destabilizing it".[202]
  •  Turkey – On 21 March, Turkish Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu said: "Syria is on an important threshold. We hope problems between the people and the administration [in Syria] can be handled without trouble."[203] On 2 May, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan warned that if the Syrian government replicated an incident like the Hama massacre during this uprising, Turkey will not stand by and watch idly.[204][205]
  •  United Arab Emirates – On 29 March, United Arab Emirates President Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan called Syrian President al-Assad, and reaffirmed that the UAE stands by Damascus.[206]
  •  United Kingdom – On 24 March, British Foreign Secretary William Hague said: "We call on the government of Syria to respect their people's right to peaceful protest, and to take action about their legitimate grievances,"[207]
  •  United States – President Barack Obama's administration condemned the use of violence, stating: “The United States stands for a set of universal rights, including the freedom of expression and assembly, and believes that governments, including the Syrian government, must address the legitimate aspirations of their people."[208] Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated that it was unlikely the US would intervene in Syria, since the US Congress views al-Assad as "a reformer".[209][210] On 9 April, it was reported that Obama had said:

    I strongly condemn the abhorrent violence committed against peaceful protesters by the Syrian government today and over the past few weeks. I also condemn any use of violence by protesters ... I call upon the Syrian authorities to refrain from any further violence against peaceful protesters ... Furthermore, the arbitrary arrests, detention, and torture of prisoners that has been reported must end now, and the free flow of information must be permitted so that there can be independent verification of events on the ground ... Violence and detention are not the answer to the grievances of the Syrian people. It is time for the Syrian government to stop repressing its citizens, and to listen to the voices of the Syrian people calling for meaningful political and economic reforms.[211]

  •  Venezuela – It was reported on 26 March that Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez had said: "Now some supposed political protest movements have begun [in Syria], a few deaths ... and now they are accusing the president of killing his people and later the Yankees will come to bomb the people to save them ... How cynical is the new format the empire has invented, to generate violent conflict, generate blood in a country, to later bombard it, intervene and take over its natural resources and convert it into a colony."[212]

NGOs

  • Amnesty International condemned the "violent crackdown", against "a peaceful protest" by people calling for the release of political prisoners.[213]
  • Human Rights Watch stated that the Syrian government has shown "no qualms about shooting dead its own citizens for speaking out." It also said that Syrian people have shown "incredible courage in daring to protest publicly against one of the most repressive governments in the region, and they shouldn't have to pay with their lives."[214][215]

Individuals

Egyptian Islamic theologian Yusuf al-Qaradawi declared his support for the uprising against what he called Syria's "suppressive regime", saying that it commits "atrocities". He called for victory against the ruling Ba'ath Party, and opined that the army would be the major factor in the revolt.[216] Al-Qaradawi said all Arabs should support the uprising in Syria, saying "Today the train of revolution has reached a station that it had to reach: The Syria station", and "It is not possible for Syria to be separated from the history of the Arab community".[217] The Muslim Brotherhood, with which al-Qaradawi has been involved for several years,[218][219] assisted in the uprising, with Islamic clergy calling on Sunnis to pour onto the streets throughout Syria and expel the Alawi regime.[220]

Media

Main article: Syrian media coverage of the 2011 Syrian uprising
File:Syria Daraa 17 april 2011 - 01.jpg
A protester in Daraa holds a placard thanking the BBC while another makes fun of a local TV channel.

Under criticism from Internet activists for failing to acknowledge the Syrian uprising, Al Jazeera provided analysis of the largest opposition parties in Syria that might have great political influence in any change of power: Syrian People's Democratic Party, Muslim Brotherhood, National Salvation Front, Movement for Justice and Development, Reform Party, Arab Socialist Movement, Arab Socialist Union, Workers Revolutionary Party, Communist Party of Labour, and others.[221] On 9 March, Al Jazeera continued its reporting with an analysis of political detainees in Syria,[222] and two days later another special report reported that many activists indicated displeasure that the general decree of amnesty did not include political prisoners.[223] Al Jazeera launched an internet page for the Syrian revolt as part of their "Arab Revolution Spring" portal.[224]

On 23 March, a column was published in The Daily Telegraph by Con Coughlin, the newspaper's executive foreign editor, calling for the creation of a no-fly zone over Syria to protect innocent protesters.[225]

See also

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Further reading

  • Lawson, Fred Haley, ed. (2009). Demystifying Syria. London: Saqi. ISBN 9780863566547.
  • Wright, Robin (2008). Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East. New York: Penguin Press. pp. 212–261. ISBN 1594201110.
  • Ziadeh, Radwan (2011). Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9781848854345.
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