Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{short description|Country in Southeast Asia and Oceania}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Coord|5|S|120|E|type:country_region:ID|display=title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Indonesia
| common_name = Indonesia
| native_name = {{native name|id|Republik Indonesia}}
| image_flag = Flag of Indonesia.svg
| image_coat = National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg
| symbol_type = [[National emblem of Indonesia|National emblem <br />(Coat of arms)]]
| national_motto = <br>{{native phrase|kaw|[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]|paren=omit}} ([[Old Javanese]])<br>"Unity in Diversity"
| other_symbol = {{lang|id|[[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]}}<br />({{lit|Five principles}})
| other_symbol_type = National ideology:
| national_anthem = {{lang|id|[[Indonesia Raya]]}}<br />"Great Indonesia"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Indonesiaraya.ogg]]</div>
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Indonesia ASEAN.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of ASEAN|default=1}}
| capital = [[Jakarta]]
| largest_city = [[Jakarta]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|6|10|S|106|49|E|type:city_region:ID}}
| languages_type = Official language
| languages = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]<!--Note: Not just the official language, but also the national language (bahasa pemersatu)-->
| languages2_type = Regional languages
| languages2 = Over [[Languages of Indonesia|700 languages]]<ref name="ethnologue"/>
| ethnic_groups = Over [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|1,300 ethnic groups]]<ref name="BPS">{{cite web|url=http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|title=Nationality, Ethnicity, Religion, and Languages of Indonesians|language=id|last1=Na'im|first1=Akhsan|last2=Syaputra|first2=Hendry|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|date=2010|access-date=2015-09-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194534/http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|archive-date=2015-09-23}}</ref>
| religion_year = 2018
| religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;|86.7% [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]]|10.7% [[Christianity in Indonesia|Christianity]]|1.7% [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hinduism]]|0.8% [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]]| 0.1% [[Aliran Kepercayaan|Folk]], [[Confucianism in Indonesia|Confucianism]], <br>and [[Religion in Indonesia|other]]}}
| religion_ref = <ref name="RELIGION">{{cite web|url=https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|title=Statistik Umat Menurut Agama di Indonesia|publisher=[[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Religious Affairs]]|date=2018-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903221250/https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|archive-date=2020-09-03|access-date=2020-09-24|language=id}}</ref>
| demonym = [[Indonesians|Indonesian]]
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of Indonesia|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Joko Widodo]]
| leader_title2 = {{nowrap|[[Vice President of Indonesia|Vice President]]}}
| leader_name2 = [[Ma'ruf Amin]]
| leader_title3 = {{nowrap|[[List of Speakers of the People's Representative Council|House Speaker]]}}
| leader_name3 = [[Puan Maharani]]
| leader_title4 = {{nowrap|[[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Indonesia|Chief Justice]]}}
| leader_name4 = [[Muhammad Syarifuddin]]
| legislature = [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (MPR)
| upper_house = [[Regional Representative Council]] (DPD)
| lower_house = [[People's Representative Council]] (DPR)
| sovereignty_type = Independence
| sovereignty_note = from the [[Dutch Empire|Netherlands]]<!-- Based on consensus, please discuss on the Talk Page before changing Netherlands to Japan, or adding both -->
| established_event1 = [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|Proclaimed]]
| established_date1 = 17 August 1945
| established_event2 = [[Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference|Recognition]]
| established_date2 = 27 December 1949
| area_km2 = 1,904,569<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|title=UN Statistics|publisher=United Nations|date=2005|access-date=2007-10-31|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031023924/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|archive-date=2007-10-31}}</ref>
| area_label = [[Land area|Land]]
| area_rank = 14th
| area_sq_mi = 735,358 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| percent_water =
| area_label2 = [[Water area|Water (%)]]
| area_data2 = 4.85
| population_estimate = {{increaseNeutral}} 277,749,853<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/page/read/7/data-kependudukan|publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (Indonesia)]]|title=Indonesian Population 2022|access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref>
| population_census = 270,203,917<ref name="2020census" />
| population_estimate_year = Q4 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 4th
| population_census_year = 2020
| population_density_km2 = 143
| population_density_sq_mi = 371
| population_density_rank = 90th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} {{currency|4.398 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}}<ref name="IMF">{{cite web|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=536,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,&sy=2020&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|publisher=International Monetary Fund|access-date=2023-04-12}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 7th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} {{currency|15,855|USD|passthrough=no}}<ref name="IMF" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 97th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} {{currency|1.392 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}}<ref name="IMF" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank = 16th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} {{currency|5,016|USD|passthrough=no}}<ref name="IMF" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 112th
| Gini = 37.9
| Gini_year = 2021
| Gini_change = increase <!--/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Indonesia|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=ID|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=2021-04-15}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.705
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=2022-09-08|access-date=2022-09-08}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 114th
| currency = [[Indonesian rupiah]] (Rp)
| currency_code = IDR
| time_zone = [[Time in Indonesia|various]]
| utc_offset = +7 to +9
| date_format = DD/MM/YYYY
| drives_on = left <!--Note that this refers to the side of the road used, not the seating of the driver-->
| calling_code = [[+62]]
| cctld = [[.id]]
}}
'''Indonesia''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|ɪ|n|d|ə|ˈ|n|iː|z|i|ə|,_|-|ʒ|ə}} {{Respell|IN|də|NEE|zee|ə|,_|-|zhə}} {{IPAc-en|US|audio=En-us-Indonesia.ogg|ˌ|ɪ|n|d|ə|ˈ|n|iː|ʒ|ə|,_|-|ʃ|ə}} {{Respell|IN|də|NEE|zhə|,_|-|shə}};<ref>{{Cite web|title=INDONESIA {{!}} Meaning & Definition for UK English {{!}} Lexico.com|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/indonesia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228122651/https://www.lexico.com/definition/indonesia|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-28|access-date=2022-05-07|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Indonesia|access-date=2022-05-07}}</ref> {{IPA-id|ɪndoˈnesia}}}} officially the '''Republic of Indonesia''',{{efn|name=fn1|{{lang|id|Republik Indonesia|links=yes}} ({{IPA-id|reˈpublik ɪndoˈnesia||3=Id-Indonesia.ogg}}) is the most-used official name, though the name [[Names of Indonesia|Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia]] ({{lang|id|Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia}}, NKRI) also appears in some official documents.}} is a country in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]] between the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] oceans. It consists of over [[List of islands of Indonesia|17,000 islands]], including [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Sulawesi]], and parts of [[Borneo]] and [[New Guinea]]. Indonesia is the world's largest [[archipelagic state]] and the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|14th-largest country by area]], at {{convert|1,904,569|km2|sqmi|lk=out|abbr=off}}. With around 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by population|fourth-most populous country]] and the most populous [[Islam by country|Muslim-majority country]]. Java, the world's [[List of islands by population|most populous island]], is home to more than half of the country's population.
As the world's third largest [[democracy]], Indonesia is a [[President of Indonesia|presidential]] [[republic]] with an elected [[People's Consultative Assembly|legislature]]. It has [[Provinces of Indonesia|38 provinces]], of which nine have [[Autonomous administrative division|special status]]. The country's capital, [[Jakarta]], is the world's [[List of largest cities|second-most populous urban area]]. Indonesia shares [[Template:Borders of Indonesia|land borders]] with [[Papua New Guinea]], [[East Timor]], and the [[East Malaysia|eastern part]] of [[Malaysia]], as well as [[maritime border]]s with [[Singapore]], [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]], the [[Philippines]], [[Australia]], [[Palau]], and [[India]]. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's [[Megadiverse countries|highest level of biodiversity]].
The [[Nusantara (archipelago)|Indonesian archipelago]] has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when the [[Srivijaya|Srivijaya Kingdom]] formed trade links with China. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Under Indian influence, [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhist]] kingdoms flourished from the early centuries CE. Muslim traders later brought [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]], and [[Europe]]an powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] during the [[Age of Discovery]]. Following three and a half centuries of [[Dutch East Indies#History|Dutch colonialism]], Indonesia secured [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|its independence]] after [[World War II]]. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a [[Post-Suharto era in Indonesia|democratisation]] process, and periods of rapid economic change.
Indonesia consists of thousands of [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|distinct native ethnic]] and hundreds of [[Languages of Indonesia|linguistic]] groups, with [[Javanese people|Javanese]] being the largest. A shared identity has developed with the motto ''"[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]"'' ("Unity in Diversity" ''literally'', "many, yet one"), defined by a [[Indonesian language|national language]], cultural diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. The [[economy of Indonesia]] is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|16th-largest by nominal GDP]] and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|7th-largest by PPP]]. It is a [[regional power]] and is considered a [[middle power]] in global affairs. The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the [[United Nations]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[G20]], and a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], [[ASEAN|Association of Southeast Asian Nations]], [[East Asia Summit]], [[D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation|D-8]] and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]].
== Etymology ==
{{further|Names of Indonesia}}
The name ''Indonesia'' derives from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words {{lang|grc-Latn|[[wikt:Indo-|Indos]]}} ({{lang|grc|Ἰνδός}}) and {{lang|grc-Latn|[[wikt:νῆσος|nesos]]}} ({{lang|grc|νῆσος}}), meaning "Indian islands".<ref name="EcoSeas1">{{cite book|last1=Tomascik|first1=Tomas|last2=Mah|first2=Anmarie Janice|last3=Nontji|first3=Anugerah|last4=Moosa|first4=Mohammad Kasim|title=The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-078-7}}</ref> The name dates back to the [[19th century]], far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.<ref name="indoety">{{cite web|url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm|title=The origin of Indonesia's name|last=Anshory|first=Irfan|publisher=Pikiran Rakyat|language=id|date=2004-08-16|access-date=2006-12-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm|archive-date=2006-12-15}}</ref> In 1850, [[George Windsor Earl]], an English [[ethnology|ethnologist]], proposed the terms ''Indunesians''—and, his preference, ''Malayunesians''—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or [[Malay Archipelago]]".{{sfn|Earl|1850|p=119}} In the same publication, one of his students, [[James Richardson Logan]], used ''Indonesia'' as a synonym for ''Indian Archipelago''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Logan|first=James Richardson|title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders|journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia|year=1850|volume=4|pages=252–347}}</ref>{{sfn|Earl|1850|pp=254, 277–278}} Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use ''Indonesia''. They preferred ''Malay Archipelago'' ({{lang-nl|Maleische Archipel}}); the ''[[Dutch East Indies|Netherlands East Indies]]'' ({{lang|nl|Nederlandsch Oost Indië}}), popularly {{lang|nl|Indië}}; ''the East'' ({{lang|nl|de Oost}}); and {{lang|nl|Insulinde}}.<ref name="Kroef">{{cite journal|title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|first=Justus M|last=van der Kroef|volume=71|issue=3|pages=166–171|year=1951|doi=10.2307/595186|jstor=595186}}</ref>
After 1900, ''Indonesia'' became more common in academic circles outside the [[Netherlands]], and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.<ref name="Kroef" /> [[Adolf Bastian]] of the University of Berlin popularized the name through his book {{lang|de|Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894|italic=yes}}. The first native scholar to use the name was [[Ki Hajar Dewantara]] when in 1913, he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, {{lang|nl|Indonesisch Pers-bureau}}.<ref name="indoety" />
== History ==
{{Main|History of Indonesia}}
=== Early history ===
[[File:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|right|A [[Borobudur ship]] carved on [[Borobudur]] temple, c. 800 CE. Outrigger boats from the archipelago may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.<ref>{{cite book|title=A short history of Indonesia: the unlikely nation?|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryindo00brow|url-access=limited|last=Brown|first= Colin|year=2003|publisher=Allen & Unwin|isbn=978-1-86508-838-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryindo00brow/page/n31 13]}}</ref>]]
Fossilised remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'', popularly known as the "[[Java Man]]", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pope|first= G.G.|title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=17|pages=43–77|year=1988|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355}} cited in {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1= T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2= R.E.|last3=Suraya|first3= A.A.|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|pages=309–412}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pope|first= G.G.|title=Evidence on the age of the Asian Hominidae|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=80|issue=16|pages=4988–4992|year=1983|pmid=6410399|doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988|pmc=384173|bibcode=1983PNAS...80.4988P|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=de Vos|first1= J.P.|last2=Sondaar|first2= P.Y.|title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia|journal=Science|volume=266|issue=16|pages=4988–4992|year=1994|doi=10.1126/science.7992059|bibcode=1994Sci...266.1726D|doi-access=free}}</ref> ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' reached the region around 43,000 BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/human-migration.html|title=The Great Human Migration|last=Gugliotta|first= Guy|publisher=Smithsonian Maganize|date=July 2008|access-date=2011-08-21}}</ref> [[Austronesian peoples]], who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now [[Taiwan]]. They arrived in the archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native [[Melanesians]] to the far eastern regions as they spread east.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=5–7}} Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of [[Paddy field|wet-field rice cultivation]] as early as the eighth century BCE{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=8–9}} allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries BCE.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=15–18}} Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=3, 9–11, 13–15, 18–20, 22–23}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|pp=18–20, 60, 133–134}}
From the seventh century CE, the [[Srivijaya]] naval kingdom flourished due to trade and the influences of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]].{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=22–26}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=3}} At that time, ancient Indonesian sailors had made long voyages to [[Madagascar]] and [[East Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|volume=279|issue=1739|pages=2761–2768|author1=Murray P. Cox|author2=Michael G. Nelson|author3=Meryanne K. Tumonggor|author4=François-X. Ricaut|author5=Herawati Sudoyo|date=2012-03-21|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.0012|pmid=22438500|pmc=3367776}}</ref> Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist [[Sailendra]] and Hindu [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's [[Borobudur]] and Mataram's [[Prambanan]]. The Hindu [[Majapahit]] kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under [[Gajah Mada]], its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia. This period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The next great empire|last=Lewis|first=Peter|journal=Futures|volume=14|issue=1|year=1982|pages=47–61|doi=10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4}}</ref>
[[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|The earliest evidence of Islamized populations]] in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern [[Sumatra]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=3–14}} Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in [[Java]] and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=12–14}}
=== Colonial era ===
{{Main|Dutch East Indies}}
[[File:Nicolaas Pieneman - The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to General De Kock.jpg|thumb|left|The submission of [[Diponegoro|Prince Diponegoro]] to [[Hendrik Merkus de Kock|General De Kock]] at the end of the [[Java War]] in 1830|alt=]]
The first Europeans arrived in the archipelago in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by [[Francisco Serrão]], [[Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago|sought to monopolise]] the sources of [[nutmeg]], [[cloves]], and [[Piper cubeba|cubeb pepper]] in the [[Maluku Islands]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=22–24}} Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the Dutch established the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) and became the dominant European power for almost 200 years. The VOC was dissolved in 1799 following bankruptcy, and the [[Batavian Republic|Netherlands]] established the [[Dutch East Indies]] as a nationalised colony.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=24}}
For most of the [[History of Indonesia#Colonial era|colonial period]], Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous. Dutch forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as [[Prince Diponegoro]] in central Java, [[Imam Bonjol]] in central Sumatra, [[Pattimura]] in [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]], and the bloody [[Aceh War|30-year war in Aceh]] weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.{{sfn|Schwarz|1994|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=142}}{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo/page/21 21]}} Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo/page/21 21]}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=61–147}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/209 209–278]}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri/page/n27 10–14]}}
The [[Dutch East Indies campaign|Japanese invasion]] and [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|subsequent occupation]] during World War II ended Dutch rule{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves|journal=Eighteenth-Century Studies|volume=31|issue=3|author1=Gert Oostindie|author2=Bert Paasman|pages=349–355|year=1998|doi=10.1353/ecs.1998.0021|url=https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/488440/16390.pdf|hdl=20.500.11755/c467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092|s2cid=161921454|hdl-access=free|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922033534/https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/488440/16390.pdf|archive-date=2017-09-22|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+id0029%29|title=Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle for Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45|publisher=Library of Congress|date=November 1992|access-date=2013-02-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821095117/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+id0029%29|archive-date=2013-08-21}}</ref> and encouraged the previously suppressed independence movement.<ref>Robert Elson, ''The idea of Indonesia: A history'' (2008) pp 1–12</ref> Two days after the [[surrender of Japan]] in August 1945, [[Sukarno]] and [[Mohammad Hatta]], influential nationalist leaders, [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|proclaimed Indonesian independence]] and were appointed president and vice-president, respectively.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/325 325]}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Indonesia|author=H. J. Van Mook|author-link=Hubertus Johannes van Mook|journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs|date=1949|volume=25|issue=3|pages=274–285|doi=10.2307/3016666|jstor=3016666}}</ref><ref name=Bidien1945>{{cite journal|title=Independence the Issue|journal=Far Eastern Survey|author=Charles Bidien|volume=14|issue=24|pages=345–348|date=1945-12-05|doi=10.2307/3023219|jstor=3023219}}</ref>{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/325 325]}}
The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, and [[Indonesian National Revolution|a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle]] ended in December 1949 when the Dutch [[Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference|formally recognised Indonesian independence]] in the face of international pressure.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=35}}<ref name=Bidien1945/> Despite extraordinary political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence.{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=[https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo/page/23 21, 23]}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=211–213}}
=== Post-World War II ===
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 260
| image1 = Presiden Sukarno.jpg
| image2 = Mohammad Hatta 1950.jpg
| footer = Sukarno (''left'') and Hatta (''right''), Indonesia's founding fathers and the first [[President of Indonesia|President]] and [[Vice President of Indonesia|Vice President]] respectively
}}
As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of [[Indonesian National Armed Forces|the military]], political Islam, and the increasingly powerful [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI).{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=237–280}} Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in [[30 September Movement|an attempted coup]] in 1965. The army, led by Major General [[Suharto]], countered by instigating a [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|violent anti-communist purge]] that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in [[Internment|concentration camps]].{{sfn|Melvin|2018|p=1}}{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=3}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966|author=Robert Cribb|journal=Asian Survey|volume=42|issue=4|date=2002|pages=550–563|doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550|s2cid=145646994|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/aa9b073fd95ecbc825767210f1afb1a724171b8b}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41651047|title=Indonesia massacres: Declassified US files shed new light|publisher=BBC|date=2017-10-17|access-date=2018-09-19|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180531212048/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41651047|archive-date=2018-05-31}}</ref>{{sfn|Bevins|2020|pp=168, 185}} The PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=107–109}}<ref>{{cite video|people=Chris Hilton (writer and director)|title=Shadowplay|medium=Television documentary|publisher=Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions|year=2001}}</ref>{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=280–283, 284, 287–290}} Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a [[Transition to the New Order|drawn-out power play with Sukarno]], Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His [[New Order (Indonesia)|"New Order"]] administration,<ref>{{cite journal|title=General Suharto's New Order|author=John D. Legge|journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs|volume=44|issue=1|year=1968|pages=40–47|jstor=2613527|doi=10.2307/2613527}}</ref> supported by the United States,{{sfn|Melvin|2018|pp=9-10}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=163}}<ref>David Slater, ''Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North–South Relations'', London: Blackwell, p. 70</ref> encouraged [[foreign direct investment]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Farid|first=Hilmar|date=2005|title=Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66|journal=Inter-Asia Cultural Studies|volume=6|issue=1|pages=3–16|doi=10.1080/1462394042000326879|s2cid=145130614}}</ref>{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=206}}{{sfn|Bevins|2020|pp=167–168}} which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Delhaise|first= Philippe F.|title=Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems|publisher=Willey|year=1998|page=123|isbn=978-0-471-83450-2}}</ref> It brought out [[May 1998 riots of Indonesia#Background|popular discontent]] with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}{{sfn|Schwarz|1994|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Indonesia: from showcase to basket case|author=Jonathan Pincus|author2=Rizal Ramli|journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics|volume=22|issue=6|pages=723–734|date=1998|doi=10.1093/cje/22.6.723}}</ref> In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|1975 invasion by Indonesia]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Burr|first=W.|title=East Timor Revisited, Ford, Kissinger, and the Indonesian Invasion, 1975–76|work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62|publisher=[[National Security Archive]], [[The George Washington University]]|location=Washington, DC|date=2001-12-06|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191005181014/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/|archive-date=2019-10-05|access-date=2006-09-17}}</ref> and a [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|25-year occupation]] marked by international condemnation of [[East Timor genocide|human rights abuses]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/situation-human-rights-east-timor|title=Situation of human rights in East Timor|publisher=Relief Web|date=1999-12-10|access-date=2019-11-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120053730/https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/situation-human-rights-east-timor|archive-date=2019-11-20}}</ref>
Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting the country's [[2004 Indonesian presidential election|first direct presidential election in 2004]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf|title=The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report|publisher=The Carter Center|access-date=2007-06-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614025148/http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf|archive-date=2007-06-14}}</ref> Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of [[Terrorism in Indonesia|terrorism]] remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly in the last 15 years. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.<ref name="RIP">{{cite book|last=Harsono|first= Andreas|title=Race, Islam and Power: Ethnic and Religious Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia|publisher=Monash University Publishing|date=May 2019|isbn=978-1-925835-09-0}}</ref> A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.<ref name="AcehPeace">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/aug/15/indonesia.tsunami20041|title=Indonesia signs Aceh peace deal|work=The Guardian|date=2005-08-15|access-date=2019-11-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116150100/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/aug/15/indonesia.tsunami20041|archive-date=2018-11-16}}</ref>
== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Indonesia|List of islands of Indonesia}}
[[File:Bromo-Semeru-Batok-Widodaren.jpg|thumb|[[Semeru|Mount Semeru]] and [[Mount Bromo]] in [[East Java]]. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.]]
Indonesia lies between latitudes [[11th parallel south|11°S]] and [[6th parallel north|6°N]] and longitudes [[95th meridian east|95°E]] and [[141st meridian east|141°E]]. A [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]] spanning [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]], it is the world's largest [[archipelagic state]], extending {{convert|5120|km|0}} from east to west and {{convert|1760|km|0}} from north to south.{{CN|date=March 2023}} The country's [[Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs (Indonesia)|Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs]] says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at the UN)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/08/21/16000-indonesian-islands-registered-at-un.html|title=16,000 Indonesian islands registered at UN|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2017-08-21|access-date=2018-12-03|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202043/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/08/21/16000-indonesian-islands-registered-at-un.html|archive-date=2018-11-30}}</ref> scattered over both sides of the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/|title=The World Factbook: Indonesia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|date=2018-10-29|access-date=2018-11-11}}</ref> The largest are [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Borneo]] (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), [[Sulawesi]], and [[New Guinea]] (shared with Papua New Guinea).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/basic-facts/|title=Facts & Figures|publisher=Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, Washington, D.C.|access-date=2021-03-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606054934/https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/basic-facts/|archive-date=2017-06-06}}</ref> Indonesia shares land borders with [[Indonesia–Malaysia border|Malaysia]] on Borneo and [[Sebatik Island|Sebatik]], [[Indonesia–Papua New Guinea border|Papua New Guinea]] on the island of New Guinea, [[East Timor–Indonesia border|East Timor]] on the island of [[Timor]], and maritime borders with [[Singapore]], Malaysia, [[Vietnam]], the [[Philippines]], [[Palau]], and [[Australia]].
At {{convert|4884|m|ft}}, [[Puncak Jaya]] is Indonesia's highest peak, and [[Lake Toba]] in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km2 (442 sq mi). [[List of rivers of Indonesia|Indonesia's largest rivers]] are in Kalimantan and [[New Guinea]] and include [[Kapuas River|Kapuas]], [[Barito River|Barito]], [[Mamberamo River|Mamberamo]], [[Sepik River|Sepik]] and [[Mahakam River|Mahakam]]. They serve as communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573214/Republic_of_Indonesia.html|title=Republic of Indonesia|publisher=Microsoft Encarta|date=2006|access-date=2009-11-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028130659/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573214/Republic_of_Indonesia.html|archive-date=2009-10-28}}</ref>
=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Indonesia|Climate change in Indonesia}}
[[File:Gunung Palung Jungle.jpg|thumb|left|Rainforest in [[Mount Palung National Park]], [[West Kalimantan]]]]
Indonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/8/f/indonesia.pdf|title=Climate: Observations, projections and impacts|publisher=Met Office Hadley Centre|access-date=2017-08-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816111123/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/8/f/indonesia.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-16}}</ref> Indonesia has two seasons—a [[wet season]] and a [[dry season]]—with no extremes of summer or winter.<ref name="worldbank1">{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf|title=Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies|publisher=World Bank|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202326/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> For most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October, with the wet season between November and April.<ref name="worldbank1" /> Indonesia's climate is almost entirely [[Tropical climate|tropical]], dominated by the [[tropical rainforest climate]] found on every large island of Indonesia. More cooling climate types do exist in mountainous regions that are {{convert|1,300|to|1,500|m|ft|lk=out|abbr=off}} above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfb'') prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with reasonably uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen ''Cwb'') is prevalent with a more pronounced dry season.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map IDN present.svg|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger climate classification]] map of Indonesia<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E.|last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution|journal=Scientific Data|date=2018-10-30|volume=5|pages=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>|alt=]]
Some regions, such as [[Kalimantan]] and [[Sumatra]], experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season and floods in the wet. Rainfall varies across regions, with more in western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua, and less in areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, which tends to be dry. The almost uniformly warm waters that constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that land temperatures remain relatively constant. [[Humidity]] is quite high, at between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with [[monsoon]]s usually blowing in from the south and east in June through October and from the northwest in November through March. [[Typhoon]]s and large-scale storms pose little hazard to mariners; significant dangers come from swift currents in channels, such as the [[Lombok Strait|Lombok]] and [[Sape Strait|Sape]] straits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/29.htm|title=Climate|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=2020-08-22|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324065541/http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/29.htm|archive-date=2019-03-24}}</ref>
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the [[Climate change in Indonesia|projected effects of climate change]].<ref>Overland, Indra et al. (2017) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312 Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier]'', Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS).</ref> These include unreduced emissions resulting in an average temperature rise of around {{cvt|1|C-change|0}} by mid-century,<ref name="ImpLab">{{Cite web|url=https://www.impactlab.org/map/#usmeas=absolute&usyear=1981-2010&gmeas=change-from-hist&gyear=2080-2099&tab=global&gvar=tasmax-over-95F&gprob=0.5&grcp=rcp85|title=Climate Impact Map|publisher=Climate Impact Lab|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref><ref name="ClimChng">{{cite web|title=Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature|url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf|vauthors=Case M, Ardiansyah F, Spector E|publisher=WWF|date=2007-11-14|access-date=2018-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219103237/http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf|archive-date=2018-02-19|url-status=live}}</ref> raising the frequency of drought and food shortages (with an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons, and thus Indonesia's agriculture system<ref name="ClimChng" />) as well as numerous diseases and wildfires.<ref name="ClimChng" /> [[Sea level rise|Rising sea levels]] would also threaten most of Indonesia's population, who live in low-lying coastal areas.<ref name="ClimChng" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|title=Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood|date=2019-10-29|publisher=Climate Central|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102025006/https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|archive-date=2019-11-02|access-date=2019-11-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-44636934|title=Jakarta, the fastest-sinking city in the world|last1=Lin|first1=Mayuri Mei|last2=Hidayat|first2=Rafki|publisher=BBC|date=2018-08-13|access-date=2018-11-19|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018234203/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-44636934|archive-date=2018-10-18}}</ref> Impoverished communities would likely be affected the most by climate change.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia: Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile|publisher=World Bank|date=April 2011|url=http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf|access-date=2018-11-18|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206014747/http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-06}}</ref>
=== Geology ===
{{Main|Geology of Indonesia}} {{See also|Volcanoes of Indonesia}}
[[File:Map indonesia volcanoes.gif|thumb|left|Major volcanoes in Indonesia. Indonesia is in the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]] area.]]
[[Tectonics|Tectonically]], most of Indonesia's area is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.<ref name="VolEthQ" /> It lies on the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]], where the [[Indo-Australian Plate]] and the [[Pacific Plate]] are pushed under the [[Eurasian plate]], where they melt at about {{convert|100|km|abbr=off}} deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, [[Java]], [[Bali]] and [[Nusa Tenggara]], and then to the [[Banda Islands]] of [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] to northeastern [[Sulawesi]].{{sfn|Witton|2003|p=38}} Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active.<ref name="VolEthQ">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26167897|title=Indonesia: Volcano nation|publisher=BBC|date=2015-11-05|access-date=2017-11-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128105714/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26167897|archive-date=2017-11-28}}</ref> Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java.<ref>{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 10|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2007|page=1306|isbn=978-0-7614-7631-3}}</ref> [[Volcanic ash]] has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/3303/10384/1/Sylviane_Lebon_fixed.pdf|title=Volcanic activity and environment: Impacts on agriculture and use of geological data to improve recovery processes|author=Sylviane L. G. Lebon|publisher=University of Iceland|date=January 2009|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227203025/http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/3303/10384/1/Sylviane_Lebon_fixed.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1= T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2= R. E.|author3=Suraya A. A.|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|pages=95–97}}</ref>
A [[Toba catastrophe theory|massive supervolcano erupted]] at present-day [[Lake Toba]] around 70,000 BCE. It is believed to have caused a global [[volcanic winter]] and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a [[genetic bottleneck]] in human evolution, though this is still in debate.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2017/08/11/early-humans-may-have-lived-through-a-supervolcano-eruption/|title=Early Humans May Have Lived Through A Supervolcano Eruption|last=Bressan|first=David|magazine=Forbes|date=2017-08-11|access-date=2017-10-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811205248/https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2017/08/11/early-humans-may-have-lived-through-a-supervolcano-eruption/|archive-date=2017-08-11}}</ref> The [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora]] and the [[1883 eruption of Krakatoa]] were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of the archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere [[Year Without a Summer|without summer in 1816]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/tambora.html|title=Tambora|publisher=Volcano Discovery|date=2016-05-29|access-date=2016-12-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220181832/https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/tambora.html|archive-date=2016-12-20}}</ref> The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2016/08/31/the-eruption-of-krakatoa-was-the-first-global-catastrophe/|title=The Eruption of Krakatoa Was the First Global Catastrophe|last=Bressan|first=David|magazine=Forbes|date=2016-08-31|access-date=2017-09-02|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160902143003/https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2016/08/31/the-eruption-of-krakatoa-was-the-first-global-catastrophe/|archive-date=2016-09-02}}</ref> Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] and the [[2006 Yogyakarta earthquake]].
=== Biodiversity and conservation ===
{{Main|Fauna of Indonesia|Flora of Indonesia|Protected areas of Indonesia}}<!----Galleries of images are generally discouraged in summary articles as they cause undue weight to one particular section and may cause accessibility problems.--->
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Rafflesia arnoldi 2013-12-31 21-48.JPG
| image2 = Man of the woods.JPG
| image3 = Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis).jpg
| image4 = Paradisaea apoda -Bali Bird Park-6.jpg
| footer = Species endemic to Indonesia. '''Clockwise from top''': ''[[Rafflesia arnoldii]]''; [[orangutan]]; [[greater bird-of-paradise]]; and [[Komodo dragon]].
}}
Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity, and it is among the 17 [[megadiverse countries]] identified by [[Conservation International]]. Its flora and fauna are a mixture of Asian and [[Australasian realm|Australasian]] species.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia's Natural Wealth: The Right of a Nation and Her People|last=Mumtazah|first= Hani|publisher=Islam Online|date=2003-05-22|url=http://www.islamonline.net/English/Science/2003/05/article13.shtml|access-date=2006-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017034459/http://www.islamonline.net/English/Science/2003/05/article13.shtml|archive-date=2006-10-17|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=These Are The 5 Most Biodiverse Countries In The World|publisher=Yahoo|url=https://news.yahoo.com/5-most-biodiverse-countries-world-214740659.html|access-date=2022-03-02}}</ref> The [[Sunda Shelf]] islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the [[Sumatran tiger]], rhinoceros, orangutan, [[Asian elephant]], and leopard were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1= T.|last2=Henderson|first2= G.|last3=Mustafa|first3= M.|title=The Ecology of Sulawesi|publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd.|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-075-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Monk|first1= K.A.|last2=Fretes|first2= Y.|last3=Reksodiharjo-Lilley|first3= G.|title=The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku|publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd.|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-076-3}}</ref> Papua was part of the Australian landmass and is home to a [[Fauna of New Guinea|unique fauna and flora]] closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geographia.com/indonesia/indono02.htm|title=Indonesia|publisher=InterKnowledge Corp|date=2006-10-06|access-date=2006-10-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015200544/http://www.geographia.com/indonesia/indono02.htm|archive-date=2006-10-15}}</ref>
Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total [[Endemism|endemic]] species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/468283.html|title=A Naturalist's Guide to the Tropics, excerpt|last=Lambertini|first= Marco|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|date=2011-04-10|access-date=2017-02-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205010300/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/468283.html|archive-date=2017-02-05}}</ref> Tropical seas surround Indonesia's {{convert|80,000|km|mi|abbr=off}} of coastline. The country has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including [[list of beaches in Indonesia|beaches]], dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.<ref name="EcoSeas1" /> Indonesia is one of the [[Coral Triangle]] countries with the world's most enormous diversity of [[coral reef fish]], with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/71545/coral-reef-destruction-spells-humanitarian-disaster|title=Coral reef destruction spells humanitarian disaster|last=Tamindael|first= Otniel|publisher=Antara News|date=2011-05-17|access-date=2011-05-25|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525101139/http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/71545/coral-reef-destruction-spells-humanitarian-disaster|archive-date=2011-05-25}}</ref>
British naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] described a dividing line ([[Wallace Line]]) between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.<ref name="Severin">{{cite book|last=Severin|first= Tim|title=The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace|publisher=Abacus Travel|year=1997|location=Great Britain|isbn=978-0-349-11040-0}}</ref> It runs roughly north–south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep [[Lombok Strait]], between [[Lombok]] and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the line are generally Asian, while east from Lombok is increasingly Australian until the tipping point at the [[Weber Line]]. In his 1869 book, ''[[The Malay Archipelago]]'', Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wallace|first= A.R.|title=The Malay Archipelago|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=2000|orig-year=1869|isbn=978-962-593-645-1}}</ref> The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed [[Wallacea]].<ref name="Severin" />
[[File:Riau palm oil 2007.jpg|thumb|Deforestation in Riau province, [[Sumatra]], to make way for an [[oil palm]] plantation (2007)]]
Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious [[Environmental issues in Indonesia|environmental issues]]. They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.<ref name="forestprob">{{cite web|last=Miller|first= Jason R.|date=2007-08-14|url=http://www.american.edu/TED/ORANG.HTM|title=Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population|publisher=TED Case Studies|access-date=2007-08-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811041439/http://www.american.edu/TED/ORANG.HTM|archive-date=2007-08-11}}</ref> Problems include the destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal [[deforestation]] (causing [[Southeast Asian haze|extensive haze across parts of Southeast Asia]]), over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and reliable [[Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia|water and wastewater services]].<ref name="forestprob" /> These issues contribute to Indonesia's low ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 [[Environmental Performance Index]]. The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance is generally below average in both regional and global context.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://epi.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/IDN_EPI2020_CP.pdf|title=2020 Environmental Performance Index|publisher=Yale University|date=2020|access-date=2020-06-09|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609071235/https://epi.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/IDN_EPI2020_CP.pdf|archive-date=2020-06-09}}</ref>
Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates.<ref>{{Citation |title=Selling Out West Papua {{!}} 101 East |date=June 25, 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cBbVu1ZOpYY&t=114s |publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=sust>{{cite journal|last1=Limaho|first1= Handoko|author2=Sugiarto|last3=Pramono|first3= Rudy|last4=Christiawan|first4= Rio|date=2022-07-14|title=The Need for Global Green Marketing for the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia|journal=Sustainability|volume=14|issue=14|page=8621|doi=10.3390/su14148621|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS?locations=ID|title=Forest area (% of land area) – Indoneisa|publisher=World Bank|access-date=2021-06-14}}</ref> down from 87% in 1950.<ref name="landuse">{{cite journal|last1=Tsujino|first1= Riyou|last2=Yumoto|first2= Takakazu|last3=Kitamura|first3= Shumpei|last4=Djamaluddin|first4= Ibrahim|last5=Darnaedi|first5= Dedy|date=November 2016|title=History of forest loss and degradation in Indonesia|journal=Land Use Policy|volume=57|pages=335–347|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.034}}</ref> Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the [[deforestation in Indonesia]].<ref name="landuse" /> Most recently, it has been driven by the [[palm oil]] industry,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Austin|first1= Kemen G|last2=Schwantes|first2= Amanda|last3=Gu|first3= Yaofeng|last4=Kasibhatla|first4= Prasad D|date=2019-02-01|title=What causes deforestation in Indonesia?|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|issue=2|page=024007|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db|bibcode=2019ERL....14b4007A|doi-access=free}}</ref> which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities.<ref name=sust /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mekongdmp.net/data/Resourcespapers/filepdf/PromisedLand.pdf|title=Palm Oil and Land Acquisition in Indonesia: Implications for Local Communities and Indigenous People|first1=Marcus|last1=Colchester|first2=Normal|last2=Jiwan|last3=Andiko|first3=Martua Sirait|first4=Asup Y.|last4=Firdaus|first5=A.|last5=Surambo|first6=Herbert|last6=Pane|date=2012-03-26|access-date=2012-05-31|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531005507/http://mekongdmp.net/data/Resourcespapers/filepdf/PromisedLand.pdf|archive-date=2012-05-31}}</ref> The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chrysolite|first1=Hanny|last2=Juliane|first2=Reidinar|last3=Chitra|first3=Josefhine|last4=Ge|first4=Mengpin|date=2017-10-04|title=Evaluating Indonesia's Progress on its Climate Commitments|url=http://www.wri.org/blog/2017/10/evaluating-indonesias-progress-its-climate-commitments|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005000659/http://www.wri.org/blog/2017/10/evaluating-indonesias-progress-its-climate-commitments|archive-date=2017-10-05|access-date=2018-08-26|website=[[World Resources Institute]]}}</ref> It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as [[threatened species|threatened]] and 15 as critically endangered, including the [[Bali myna]],<ref>{{cite iucn|author=BirdLife International|title=''Leucopsar rothschildi''|volume=2016|page=e.T22710912A94267053|year=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22710912A94267053.en}}</ref> [[Sumatran orangutan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/content/extinction-crisis-escalates-red-list-shows-apes-corals-vultures-dolphins-all-danger|title=Extinction crisis escalates: Red List shows apes, corals, vultures, dolphins all in danger|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature|date=2007-09-12|access-date=2016-10-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016135339/https://www.iucn.org/content/extinction-crisis-escalates-red-list-shows-apes-corals-vultures-dolphins-all-danger|archive-date=2016-10-16}}</ref> and [[Javan rhinoceros]].<ref>{{Cite iucn|last=van Strien|first= N.J.|last2=Steinmetz|first2= R.|last3=Manullang|first3= B.|last4=Sectionov|first4= K.H.|last5=Isnan|first5= W.|last6=Rookmaaker|first6= K.|last7=Sumardja|first7= E.|last8=Khan|first8= M.K.M.|last9=Ellis|first9= S.|name-list-style=amp|title=''Rhinoceros sondaicus''|volume=2008|page=e.T19495A8925965|date=2008|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19495A8925965.en}}</ref>
== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Indonesia}}
[[File:Ruang MPR.jpg|thumb|A presidential inauguration by the MPR in the [[DPR/MPR Building|Parliament Complex]] Jakarta, [[First inauguration of Joko Widodo|2014]]|alt=]]
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the [[Fall of Suharto|fall of the New Order]] in 1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with [[Constitution of Indonesia#Constitutional amendments|four constitutional amendments]] revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches.<ref name="Harijanti2006">{{cite journal|title=Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court|last1=Dwi Harijanti|first1=Susi|last2=Lindsey|first2=Tim|journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law|volume=4|issue=1|pages=138–150|doi=10.1093/icon/moi055|date=2006-01-01|doi-access=free}}</ref> Chief among them is the delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a [[unitary state]].<ref>{{Citation|last1=Ardiansyah|first1=Fitrian|last2=Marthen|first2=Andri|last3=Amalia|first3=Nur|title=Forest and land-use governance in a decentralized Indonesia|date=2015|doi =10.17528/cifor/005695|doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[President of Indonesia]] is the [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Indonesian National Armed Forces]] (''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'', TNI), and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.<ref>(2002), ''The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution'', Chapter III – The Executive Power, Article 7.</ref>
The highest representative body at the national level is the [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'', MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president,<ref>Chapter II, Article 3, 3rd Clause of the 1945 Constitution.</ref><ref name="UUD45">{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf|title=The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia|publisher=International Labour Organization|access-date=2017-10-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011113409/http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-11}}</ref> and formalising broad outlines of state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the [[People's Representative Council]] (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat'', DPR), with 575 members, and the [[Regional Representative Council]] (''Dewan Perwakilan Daerah'', DPD), with 136.<ref name="INAlegis">{{cite web|url=https://australiaindonesiacentre.org/app/uploads/2018/09/Guide-to-the-2019-Presidential-Elections-Kevin-Evans.pdf|title=Guide to the 2019 Indonesian Elections|last=Evans|first=Kevin|publisher=Australia-Indonesia Centre|date=2019|access-date=2019-07-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417120111/https://australiaindonesiacentre.org/app/uploads/2018/09/Guide-to-the-2019-Presidential-Elections-Kevin-Evans.pdf|archive-date=2019-04-17}}</ref> The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance,<ref name="Harijanti2006" /> while the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.<ref>Chapter VIIA, Article 22D of the 1945 Constitution.</ref><ref name="UUD45" />
Most civil disputes appear before the State Court (''Pengadilan Negeri''); appeals are heard before the High Court (''Pengadilan Tinggi''). The [[Supreme Court of Indonesia]] (''Mahkamah Agung'') is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the [[Constitutional Court of Indonesia|Constitutional Court]] (''Mahkamah Konstitusi'') which listens to constitutional and political matters, and the Religious Court (''Pengadilan Agama''), which deals with codified Islamic Personal Law (''sharia'') cases.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cammack|first1=Mark E.|last2=Feener|first2=R. Michael|publisher=Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal|date=January 2012|title=The Islamic Legal System in Indonesia|url=http://digital.law.washington.edu/dspace-law/bitstream/handle/1773.1/1091/21PRPLJ013.pdf|access-date=2017-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701133616/http://digital.law.washington.edu/dspace-law/bitstream/handle/1773.1/1091/21PRPLJ013.pdf|archive-date=2017-07-01|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Judicial Commission of Indonesia|Judicial Commission]] (''Komisi Yudisial'') monitors the performance of judges.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.komisiyudisial.go.id/frontend/static_content/authority_and_duties/about_ky|title=Authority and Duty|publisher=Judicial Commission of the Republic of Indonesia|language=id}}</ref>
=== Parties and elections ===
{{Main|List of political parties in Indonesia|Elections in Indonesia}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 260
| image1 = Joko Widodo 2019 official portrait.jpg
| caption1 = [[Joko Widodo]],<br /><small> 7th [[President of Indonesia]]<br /></small>
| image2 = Ma'ruf Amin 2019 official portrait.jpg
| caption2 = [[Ma'ruf Amin]],<br /><small> 13th [[Vice President of Indonesia]]<br /></small>
}}
Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all [[Elections in Indonesia|legislative elections]] since the fall of the [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]], no political party has won an overall majority of seats. The [[Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle]] (PDI-P), which secured the most votes in the [[2019 Indonesian general election|2019 elections]], is the party of the incumbent president, [[Joko Widodo]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/15/world/asia/jakarta-governor-joko-widodo.html|title=Governor of Jakarta Receives His Party's Nod for President|last=Cochrane|first=Joe|work=The New York Times|date=2014-03-15|access-date=2017-02-03|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203052210/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/15/world/asia/jakarta-governor-joko-widodo.html|archive-date=2017-02-03}}</ref> Other notable parties include the [[Golkar|Party of the Functional Groups]] (''Golkar''), the [[Great Indonesia Movement Party]] (''Gerindra''), the [[Democratic Party (Indonesia)|Democratic Party]], and the [[Prosperous Justice Party]] (PKS).
The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the [[Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia|Constitutional Assembly]] (''Konstituante''). The most recent elections in 2019 resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with a [[Election threshold|parliamentary threshold]] of 4% of the national vote.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/academia/2017/08/04/new-election-bill-new-hope-for-democracy.html|title=New election bill, new hope for democracy|last=Maboy|first= Olasri|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2017-08-04|access-date=2018-10-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010124440/http://www.thejakartapost.com/academia/2017/08/04/new-election-bill-new-hope-for-democracy.html|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.<ref name="INAlegis" /><ref name="Harijanti2006" /> Beginning with the [[2015 Indonesian local elections|2015 local elections]], elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/02/08/explaining-the-2019-simultaneous-elections.html|title=Explaining the 2019 simultaneous elections|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|last=Tehusijarana|first= Karina M.|date=2019-02-08|access-date=2020-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513073335/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/02/08/explaining-the-2019-simultaneous-elections.html|archive-date=2019-05-13|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Indonesia}}
Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level are the [[Provinces of Indonesia|provinces]], which have a legislature (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah'', DPRD) and an elected [[List of current governors in Indonesia|governor]]. A total of 38 provinces have been established from the original eight in 1945,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/muspres/sejarah-wilayah-indonesia/|title=Sejarah Wilayah Indonesia|date=2018-09-12|author=Museum Kepresidenan|publisher=[[Ministry of Education and Culture (Indonesia)|Ministry of Education and Culture]]|access-date=2020-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129032207/https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/muspres/sejarah-wilayah-indonesia/|archive-date=2020-01-29|url-status=live}}</ref> with the most recent change being the split of [[Southwest Papua]] from the province of [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]] in 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.antaranews.com/news/264759/southwest-papua-officially-becomes-indonesias-38th-province|title=Southwest Papua officially becomes Indonesia's 38th province|publisher=[[Antara (news agency)|Antara]]|first=Fardah|last=Assegaf|date=2022-12-09|access-date=2023-02-07}}</ref> The second level are the [[regency (Indonesia)|regencies]] (''kabupaten'') and [[city status in Indonesia|cities]] (''kota''), led by regents (''bupati'') and mayors (''walikota'') respectively and a legislature (''DPRD Kabupaten/Kota''). The third level are the [[Districts of Indonesia|districts]] (''kecamatan'', ''distrik'' in [[Western New Guinea|Papua]], or ''kapanewon'' and ''kemantren'' in [[Special Region of Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]]), and the fourth are the [[Villages of Indonesia|villages]] (either ''desa'', ''kelurahan'', ''kampung'', ''nagari'' in [[West Sumatra]], or ''gampong'' in [[Aceh]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Setiawan|first= Irfan|title=Rekonstruksi Birokrasi Pemerintahan Daerah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYgpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188|publisher=Institut Pemerintahan Dalam Negeri|year=2014|pages=187–188}}</ref>
The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several community groups (''rukun warga'', RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups (''rukun tetangga'', RT). In Java, the village (''desa'') is divided into smaller units called ''dusun'' or ''dukuh'' (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become chief administrative units responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles village or neighbourhood matters through an elected village head (''lurah'' or ''kepala desa'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.insideindonesia.org/the-village-head-as-patron-2|title=The village head as patron|publisher=Inside Indonesia|last1=Berenschot|first1= Ward|last2=Sambodho|first2= Prio|date=2017-05-09|access-date=2020-08-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329193633/https://www.insideindonesia.org/the-village-head-as-patron-2|archive-date=2018-03-29}}</ref>
Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, [[Papua (province)|Papua]], [[Central Papua]], [[Highland Papua]], [[South Papua]], [[Southwest Papua]] and [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]]—are granted a [[Autonomous administrative division|special autonomous status]] (''otonomi khusus'') from the central government. A conservative [[Islamism|Islamic territory]], Aceh has the right to create some aspects of an independent legal system implementing ''[[sharia]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Michelle Ann Miller|title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?|journal=Asian Ethnicity|volume=5|issue=3|year=2004|pages=333–351|doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789|s2cid=143311407}}</ref> Jakarta is the only [[Independent city|city with a provincial government]] due to its position as the [[capital of Indonesia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/hol19575/dki-jakarta-sebuah-kota-yang-berstatus-provinsi/|title=DKI Jakarta, a City with a Provincial Status?|date=2008-06-26|publisher=Hukum Online|language=id|access-date=2020-02-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219162152/https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/hol19575/dki-jakarta-sebuah-kota-yang-berstatus-provinsi/|archive-date=2020-02-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2015/06/23/17201151/22.Fakta.tentang.Kota.Jakarta?page=all|title=22 Facts About the City of Jakarta|work=[[Kompas]]|date=2015-06-23|first=Arief|last=Kurniawan|access-date=2021-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607024749/http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2015/06/23/17201151/22.Fakta.tentang.Kota.Jakarta?page=all|archive-date=2017-06-07}}</ref> Yogyakarta is the only [[List of Indonesian monarchies|pre-colonial monarchy]] legally recognised within Indonesia, with the positions of governor and vice governor being prioritised for the reigning [[Yogyakarta Sultanate|Sultan of Yogyakarta]] and [[Pakualaman|Duke of Pakualaman]], respectively.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/11/23/thousands-bid-farewell-yogyakarta-pakualaman-leader.html|title=Thousands bid farewell to Yogyakarta, Pakualaman leader|work=[[The Jakarta Post]]|first=Slamet|last=Susanto|date=2015-11-23|access-date=2022-06-27}}</ref> The six Papuan provinces are the only ones where the [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|indigenous people]] have privileges in their local government.<ref>{{cite news|date=2019-09-17|title=Putting Indigenous Papuans as the Leading Subject of Development|language=id|url=https://www.indonesia.go.id/narasi/indonesia-dalam-angka/ekonomi/menempatkan-orang-papua-asli-sebagai-subjek-utama-pembangunan|url-status=live|access-date=2020-02-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219162329/https://www.indonesia.go.id/narasi/indonesia-dalam-angka/ekonomi/menempatkan-orang-papua-asli-sebagai-subjek-utama-pembangunan|archive-date=2020-02-19}}</ref>
{{transcluded section|source=Template:Indonesia provinces labelled map}}
{{center|{{Indonesia provinces labelled map}}}}
=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Indonesia}}
[[File:Australias indonesian embassy.jpg|thumb|[[Embassy of Indonesia, Canberra]], Australia]]
Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kemlu.go.id/portal/id/page/29/kedutaan_konsulat|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs – Republic of Indonesia|date=2019-03-26|title=Missions|access-date=2019-07-15|language=id}}</ref> The country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://btk.ppke.hu/uploads/articles/554378/file/Feny%C5%91%20M%C3%A1rton_Szakdolgozat_MA_2015.pdf|title=The Foreign Policy of Indonesia In Light of President Jokowi's "Visi-Misi" Program|last1=Péter|first1=Klemensits|last2=Márton|first2=Fenyő|publisher=Pázmány Péter Catholic University|date=2017-08-16|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152016/https://btk.ppke.hu/uploads/articles/554378/file/Feny%C5%91%20M%C3%A1rton_Szakdolgozat_MA_2015.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref>
Indonesia was a significant battleground during the Cold War. Numerous attempts by the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|title=What the United States Did in Indonesia|last=Bevins|first= Vincent|publisher=The Atlantic|date=2017-10-20|access-date=2019-07-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190633/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|archive-date=2019-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/94948/wp_sdsc_411.pdf|title=Strategic Realignment or Déjà vu? Russia-Indonesia Defence Cooperation in the Twenty-First Century|last1=Muraviev|first1=Alexey|last2=Brown|first2=Colin|publisher=Australian National University|date=December 2008|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202518/https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/94948/wp_sdsc_411.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> and [[China]] to some degree,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/10/01/china-and-sept-30-movement.html|title=China and the Sept. 30 movement|last=Dahana|first= A.|publisher=The Jakarta Post|date=2015-10-01|access-date=2019-07-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005021538/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/10/01/china-and-sept-30-movement.html|archive-date=2015-10-05}}</ref> culminated in the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy.{{sfn|Robinson|2018}} Quiet alignment with the Western world while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/97.htm|title=Indonesia – Foreign Policy|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=2006-09-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927151642/http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/97.htm|archive-date=2006-09-27}}</ref> Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ([[ASEAN]]) and the [[East Asia Summit]]. In common with most of the [[Muslim world]], Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with [[Israel]] and has actively supported [[State of Palestine|Palestine]]. However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/03/the-quiet-growth-in-indonesia-israel-relations/|title=The Quiet Growth in Indonesia-Israel Relations|author=Muhammad Zulfikar Rakhmat|magazine=The Diplomat|date=2015-03-11|access-date=2018-09-08|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613085526/https://thediplomat.com/2015/03/the-quiet-growth-in-indonesia-israel-relations/|archive-date=2018-06-13}}</ref>
Indonesia has been [[Indonesia and the United Nations|a member]] of the [[United Nations]] since 1950{{efn|name=fn2|During the [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation]], Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the [[United Nations Security Council]], although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rappler.com/world/regions/asia-pacific/indonesia/bahasa/englishedition/143883-united-nations-withdrawal-philippines-duterte|title=What happened when Indonesia 'withdrew' from the United Nations|last=Gutierrez|first= Natashya|work=Rappler|date=2016-08-22|access-date=2018-09-08|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101151415/https://www.rappler.com/world/regions/asia-pacific/indonesia/bahasa/englishedition/143883-united-nations-withdrawal-philippines-duterte|archive-date=2016-11-01}}</ref>}} and was a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM) and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fri_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PP62|title=Indonesia's Ascent: Power, Leadership, and the Regional Order|date=2015-02-25|access-date=2017-12-19|isbn=978-1-137-39741-6|last1=Roberts|first1=C.|last2=Habir|first2=A.|last3=Sebastian|first3=L.}}</ref> Indonesia is a signatory to the [[ASEAN Free Trade Area]] agreement, the [[Cairns Group]], the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), and a former member of [[OPEC]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-opec-meeting-indonesia-idUSKBN13Q3M7|title=Net oil importer Indonesia leaves producer club OPEC, again|last1=Jensen|first1=Fergus|last2=Asmarini|first2=Wilda|work=Reuters|access-date=2016-12-01|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201141227/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-opec-meeting-indonesia-idUSKBN13Q3M7|archive-date=2016-12-01}}</ref> Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://devinit.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Investments-to-End-Poverty-Chapter-10-Indonesia.pdf|title=Indonesia|publisher=Development Initiatives|date=2013|access-date=2018-07-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107152704/http://devinit.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Investments-to-End-Poverty-Chapter-10-Indonesia.pdf|archive-date=2014-01-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2017/12/02/why-does-indonesia-seem-to-prefer-foreign-aid-from-china/|title=Why does Indonesia seem to prefer foreign aid from China?|author=Pierre van der Eng|publisher=East Asia Forum|date=2017-12-02|access-date=2018-07-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722143133/http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2017/12/02/why-does-indonesia-seem-to-prefer-foreign-aid-from-china/|archive-date=2018-07-22}}</ref> and recently, the country established its first overseas aid programme in late 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/10/18/indonesia-launches-international-assistance-agency.html|title=Indonesia Launches $212M International Development Aid Fund|publisher=Jakarta Globe|last=Yasmin|first= Nur|date=2019-10-18|access-date=2020-11-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020134511/https://jakartaglobe.id/news/indonesia-launches-212m-international-development-aid-fund|archive-date=2019-10-20}}</ref>
=== Military ===
{{Main|Indonesian National Armed Forces|Military history of Indonesia}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Tniadkostrad.jpg
| image2 = Tni-au su-30 1.jpg
| image3 = RAN-IFR 2013 D3 83.JPG
| image4 = Pindad Anoa APS-3 RLG.jpg
| footer = Indonesian Armed Forces. '''Clockwise from top''': [[Indonesian Army]] during training session; [[Sukhoi Su-30]]; [[Anoa (armoured personnel carrier)|Pindad Anoa]]; and Indonesian naval vessel {{ship|KRI|Sultan Iskandar Muda|367|4}}.
}}
Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include the [[Indonesian Army|Army]] (TNI–AD), [[Indonesian Navy|Navy]] (TNI–AL, which includes [[Indonesian Marine Corps|Marine Corps]]), and [[Indonesian Air Force|Air Force]] (TNI–AU). The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of GDP in 2018,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ms.mil.xpnd.gd.zs?end=2018&start=2007&view=chart|title=Indonesia: Military expenditure (% of GDP)|publisher=World Bank|date=2018|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref> with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and foundations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2016/06/17/tnis-gold-mine-corruption-and-military-owned-businesses-in-indonesia/|title=TNI's Gold Mine: Corruption and Military-Owned Businesses in Indonesia|author=Jessica Vincentia Marpaung|publisher=The Global Anti Corruption Blog|date=2016-06-17|access-date=2017-12-18|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218051830/https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2016/06/17/tnis-gold-mine-corruption-and-military-owned-businesses-in-indonesia/|archive-date=2017-12-18}}</ref> The Armed Forces were formed during the [[Indonesian National Revolution]] when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia. Since then, territorial lines have formed the basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp9899/99rp23|title=Indonesian Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia-TNI)|last=Lowry|first= Bob|publisher=Parliament of Australia|date=1999-06-29|access-date=2019-07-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008153611/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp9899/99rp23|archive-date=2017-10-08}}</ref> The military has possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which [[Dwifungsi|peaked during the New Order]]. Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature. Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/4977/thesis.pdf?sequence=1|title=The Political Influence of the Military Before and After Democratic Transition: Experiences from Indonesia – An Assessment on Myanmar|last=Beets|first= Benjamin H.|publisher=Victoria University of Wellington|date=2015|access-date=2018-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730110650/https://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/4977/thesis.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=2018-07-30|url-status=live}}</ref>
Since independence, the country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and separatist movements.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://articles.latimes.com/1990-09-09/news/mn-439_1_separatist-movements|title=Indonesia Faces 3 Separatist Movements|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=1990-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151213/http://articles.latimes.com/1990-09-09/news/mn-439_1_separatist-movements|archive-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|access-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> Some, notably in [[Insurgency in Aceh|Aceh]] and [[Papua conflict|Papua]], have led to an armed conflict and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Agustinus Beo da Costa, Tom Allard|date=2021-05-21|title=Indonesia's troop surge to 'wipe out' armed rebels, says police chief|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/southeast-asia/indonesia-papua-police-chief-rebels-b1851320.html|website=[[The Independent]]|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=270–273, 477–480}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3809079.stm|title=Indonesia flashpoints: Aceh|publisher=BBC|date=2005-12-29|access-date=2006-08-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822194320/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3809079.stm|archive-date=2006-08-22}}</ref> The former was resolved peacefully in 2005,<ref name="AcehPeace" /> while the latter has continued amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws and a reported decline in the levels of violence and [[Human rights in Indonesia#West Papua issues|human rights abuses]] as of 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions|date=2006-09-05|url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/indonesia/b53_papua_answers_to_frequently_asked_questions.pdf|publisher=International Crisis Group|access-date=2006-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060918233640/http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/indonesia/b53_papua_answers_to_frequently_asked_questions.pdf|archive-date=2006-09-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other engagements of the army include the [[West New Guinea dispute|conflict]] against the Netherlands over the [[Dutch New Guinea]], the opposition to the [[British Empire|British]]-sponsored [[Malaysia Agreement|creation of Malaysia]] ("[[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation|Konfrontasi]]"), the [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|mass killings]] of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and the [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invasion of East Timor]], which remains Indonesia's most massive military operation.<ref>Indonesia. Department of Foreign Affairs. ''Decolonization in East Timor''. Jakarta: Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, 1977. {{OCLC|4458152}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Budiardjo|first1=Carmel|first2=Liem Soei|last2=Liong|title=The War against East Timor|location=London|publisher=Zed Books|year=1984|page=22|isbn=0-86232-228-6}}</ref>
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Indonesia|Economic history of Indonesia}}
{{See also|Agriculture in Indonesia}}
[[File:Oil palm plantation in Cigudeg-03.jpg|thumb|right|Vast [[palm oil]] plantation in [[Bogor Regency]], [[West Java]]. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pacheco|first1= P.|last2=Gnych|first2= S.|last3=Dermawan|first3= A.|last4=Komarudin|first4= H.|last5=Okarda|first5= B.|date=2017|title=The Palm Oil Global Value Chain: Implications for Economic Growth and Social and Environmental Sustainability|journal=Center for International Forestry Research – Working Paper|volume=220}}</ref>]]
[[File:Indonesia Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Indonesia exports, 2019]]
Indonesia has a [[mixed economy]] in which the private sector and government play vital roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/economy/item177|title=Economy of Indonesia|publisher=Indonesia Investments|access-date=2017-05-04|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504124120/https://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/economy/item177|archive-date=2017-05-04}}</ref> As the only [[G20]] member state in Southeast Asia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://g20.org/|title=G20 Presidency of Indonesia|publisher=G20}}</ref> the country has the largest economy in the region and is classified as a [[newly industrialised country]]. Per a 2023 estimate, it is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|16th largest economy by nominal GDP]] and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|7th in terms of GDP at PPP]], estimated to be {{currency|1.392 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}} and {{currency|4.398 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}}, respectively. Per capita GDP in PPP is {{currency|15,855|USD|passthrough=no}}, while nominal [[gross domestic product|per capita GDP]] is {{currency|5,016|USD|passthrough=no}}.<ref name="IMF" /> Services are the economy's largest sector and account for 43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/319236/share-of-economic-sectors-in-the-gdp-in-indonesia/|title=Indonesia: Share of economic sectors in the gross domestic product (GDP) from 2008 to 2018|publisher=Statista|date=December 2019|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref> Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/320160/employment-by-economic-sector-in-indonesia/|title=Indonesia: Distribution of employment by economic sector from 2009 to 2019|publisher=Statista|date=December 2019|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref>
Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably.<ref name="RBA">{{cite web|url=http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2011/dec/pdf/bu-1211-4.pdf|title=The Growth and Development of the Indonesian Economy|last1=Elias|first1=Stephen|last2=Noone|first2=Clare|publisher=Reserve Bank of Australia|date=December 2011|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227203419/http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2011/dec/pdf/bu-1211-4.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> Historically, it has been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and government policies in the 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency.<ref name="RBA" /> A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports.<ref name="RBA" /> This development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the [[1990 oil price shock]], during which the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%. As a result, the official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Indonesia-POVERTY-AND-WEALTH.html|title=Indonesia – Poverty and Wealth|publisher=Encyclopedia of the Nations|access-date=2011-07-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714155857/http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Indonesia-POVERTY-AND-WEALTH.html#ixzz1FB50TL4X|archive-date=2011-07-14}}</ref> Trade barriers reduction from the mid-1980s made the economy more globally integrated. The growth ended with the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]] that severely impacted the economy, including a 13.1% real GDP contraction in 1998 and a 78% inflation. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Titiheruw|first1=Ira S.|last2=Atje|first2=Raymond|date=2008|title=Managing Capital Flows: The Case of Indonesia|journal=Asian Development Bank Institute Discussion Paper|volume=94|pages=9–10}}</ref>
Relatively steady inflation<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/economics/working_papers/pdffiles/dp01522.pdf|title=Growing into trouble: Indonesia after 1966|last=Temple|first= Jonathan|publisher=University of Bristol|date=2001-08-15|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202512/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/economics/working_papers/pdffiles/dp01522.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> and an increase in GDP deflator and the Consumer Price Index<ref>{{cite web|url=https://socialhistory.org/sites/default/files/docs/ecgrowtheng.pdf|title=Indonesia's growth experience in the 20th century: Evidence, queries, guesses|last=van der Eng|first= Pierre|publisher=Australian National University|date=2002-02-04|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152026/https://socialhistory.org/sites/default/files/docs/ecgrowtheng.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years. From 2007 to 2019, annual growth accelerated to between 4% and 6% due to improvements in the banking sector and domestic consumption,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=42&pr.y=11&sy=2007&ey=2017&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=536&s=NGDP_RPCH&grp=0&a=|title=World Economic Outlook Database: Report for Selected Countries and Subjects – Indonesia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=October 2017|access-date=2018-01-09}}</ref> helping Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 [[Great Recession]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2009/car072809b.htm|title=IMF Survey: Indonesia's Choice of Policy Mix Critical to Ongoing Growth|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=2009-07-28|access-date=2017-02-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205010131/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2009/car072809b.htm|archive-date=2017-02-05}}</ref> and regain in 2011 the investment grade rating it had lost in 1997.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/business/fitch-upgrades-indonesias-rating-to-investment-grade/484940|title=Fitch Upgrades Indonesia's Rating to Investment Grade|newspaper=Jakarta Globe|date=2011-12-15|access-date=2012-02-08|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108060719/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/business/fitch-upgrades-indonesias-rating-to-investment-grade/484940|archive-date=2012-01-08}}</ref> {{as of|2019}}, 9.41% of the population lived below the poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/indonesia-s-economy-grew-last-year-despite-shortfalls/1697593|title=Indonesia's economy grew last year despite shortfalls|last=Musyaffa|first= Iqbal|publisher=Anadoly Agency|date=2020-01-09|access-date=2020-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110142100/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/indonesia-s-economy-grew-last-year-despite-shortfalls/1697593|archive-date=2020-01-10}}</ref> During the first year of the global [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the economy suffered its first recession since the 1997 crisis but recovered in the following year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/37584|title=Indonesia Economic Prospects, June 2022 : Financial Deepening for Stronger Growth and Sustainable Recovery|publisher=WorldBank|date=2022-05-31|access-date=2022-08-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622092437/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/37584|archive-date=2022-06-22}}</ref>
Indonesia has abundant natural resources. Its primary industries are fishing, petroleum, timber, paper products, cotton cloth, tourism, petroleum mining, natural gas, bauxite, coal and tin. Its main agricultural products are rice, coconuts, soybeans, bananas, coffee, tea, palm, rubber, and sugar cane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.embassyofindonesia.org/basic-facts/|title=Facts & Figures – Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia | Washington D.C.|access-date=5 September 2022|archive-date=5 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905163515/http://www.embassyofindonesia.org/basic-facts/|url-status=dead}}</ref> These commodities make up a large portion of the country's exports, with palm oil and coal briquettes as the leading export commodities. In addition to refined and crude petroleum as the primary imports, telephones, vehicle parts and wheat cover the majority of additional imports. China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand are Indonesia's principal export markets and import partners.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/idn|title=Indonesia|publisher=The Observatory of Economic Complexity|date=2019|access-date=2020-08-22}}</ref>
=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Indonesia}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Transjakarta_PKT_106_at_Gambir.jpg
| image2 = Percobaan 205-10 dengan Livery KAI Commuter terbaru Tahun 2020.jpg
| image3 = Pelni Einschiffung.jpg
| image4 = PK-GIE Garuda Indonesia Boeing 777-3U3(ER) cn29147, Take off from Schiphol (AMS - EHAM), The Netherlands.JPG
| footer = Major transport modes in Indonesia. '''Clockwise from top''': [[TransJakarta]] bus; [[KRL Commuterline]]; [[Garuda Indonesia]] Boeing 777–300 ER; and [[Pelni]] ship.
}}
Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipelago and the distribution of its 275 million people highly concentrated on [[Java]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Legge|first1=John D.|title=Review: Indonesia's Diversity Revisited|journal=Indonesia|date=April 1990|volume=49|issue=49|pages=127–131|url=http://cip.cornell.edu/seap.indo/1107012385|jstor=3351057|doi=10.2307/3351057|hdl=1813/53928|hdl-access=free}}</ref> All transport modes play a role in the country's transport system and are generally complementary rather than competitive. In 2016, the transport sector generated about 5.2% of GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.emis.com/blog/indonesia-transportation-sector-report-20172018|title=Indonesian Transportation Sector Report 2017/2018|last=del Olmo|first= Esmeralda|publisher=EMIS|date=2017-11-06|access-date=2018-10-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024074026/https://www.emis.com/blog/indonesia-transportation-sector-report-20172018|archive-date=2018-10-24}}</ref>
The road transport system is predominant, with a total length of {{convert|542310|km|mi|abbr=off}} {{As of|2018|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/linkTableDinamis/view/id/820|title=Length of Road by Surface, 1957–2018 (Km)|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|language=id|access-date=2020-03-21}}</ref> Jakarta has the [[TransJakarta|most extended bus rapid transit system globally]], boasting {{convert|251.2|km|abbr=off}} in 13 corridors and ten cross-corridor routes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://transjakarta.co.id/produk-dan-layanan/infrastruktur/koridor/|title=Koridor|publisher=TransJakarta|language=id|access-date=2017-08-15}}</ref> [[Rickshaw]]s such as ''bajaj'' and ''becak'' and [[share taxi]]s such as ''Angkot'' and ''Metromini'' are a regular sight in the country.
Most [[Rail transport in Indonesia|railways]] are in Java, used for freight and passenger transport, such as local commuter rail services (mainly in [[KRL Commuterline|Jakarta]] and [[KRL Commuterline Yogyakarta–Solo|Yogyakarta–Solo]]) complementing the [[Rail transport in Indonesia|inter-city rail network]] in several cities. In the late 2010s, Jakarta and Palembang were the first cities in Indonesia to have [[rapid transit]] systems, with more planned for other cities in the future.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.overtureglobal.io/story/at-last-light-rail-comes-to-jakarta|title=At Last, Light Rail Comes to Jakarta|last=Coca|first= Nithin|publisher=Overture|date=2019-04-14|access-date=2019-11-22|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122052504/https://www.overtureglobal.io/story/at-last-light-rail-comes-to-jakarta|archive-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> In 2015, the government announced a plan to build a [[High-speed rail in Indonesia|high-speed rail]], which would be the first in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/south-east-asias-first-high-speed-rail-ready-for-construction-china-railway-corp|title=South-east Asia's first high-speed rail in Indonesia ready for construction: China Railway Corp|newspaper=The Straits Times|date=2018-07-02|access-date=2018-09-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711162201/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/south-east-asias-first-high-speed-rail-ready-for-construction-china-railway-corp|archive-date=2018-07-11}}</ref>
Indonesia's largest airport, [[Soekarno–Hatta International Airport]], is among the busiest in the Southern Hemisphere, [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|serving 54 million passengers in 2019]]. [[Ngurah Rai International Airport]] and [[Juanda International Airport]] are the country's second-and third-busiest airport, respectively. [[Garuda Indonesia]], the country's flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance [[SkyTeam]]. The [[Port of Tanjung Priok]] is the busiest and most advanced Indonesian port,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21693404-after-decades-underinvestment-infrastructure-spending-picking-up-last|title=The 13,466-island problem|newspaper=The Economist|date=2016-02-27|access-date=2017-06-16}}</ref> handling more than 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.
{{clear}}
=== Energy ===
{{Main|Energy in Indonesia}}
[[File:Pltb-sidrap.jpg|thumb|Sidrap wind farm, Indonesia's first wind power plant, in [[Sidrap Regency]], [[South Sulawesi]]]]
In 2019, Indonesia produced {{convert|17.059|e15Btu|TWh|lk=on|order=flip|abbr=off}} and consumed {{convert|8.043|e15Btu|TWh|order=flip|abbr=off}} worth of energy.<ref name="USEIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/country.php?iso=IDN|title=Overview: Indonesia|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|date=2021-09-24|access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> The country has substantial energy resources, including {{convert|22|e9oilbbl|e9m3|abbr=off}} of conventional oil and gas reserves (of which about 4 billion barrels are recoverable), 8 billion barrels of oil-equivalent of coal-based methane (CBM) resources, and 28 billion tonnes of recoverable coal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey%20Offices/Indonesia/PDFs/Ten_ideas_to_reshape_Indonesias_energy_sector.ashx|title=Ten ideas to reshape Indonesia's energy sector|last1=Budiman|first1=Arief|last2=Das|first2=Kaushik|last3=Mohammad|first3=Azam|last4=Tee Tan|first4=Khoon|last5=Tonby|first5=Oliver|publisher=McKinsey&Company|date=September 2014|access-date=2015-03-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330035251/http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey%20Offices/Indonesia/PDFs/Ten_ideas_to_reshape_Indonesias_energy_sector.ashx|archive-date=2015-03-30}}</ref>
In late 2020, Indonesia's total national installed power generation capacity stands at 72,750.72 MW.<ref>{{cite book|date=September 2020|title=Statistik Ketenagalistrikan 2020|url=https://gatrik.esdm.go.id/assets/uploads/download_index/files/8f7e7-20211110-statistik-2020-rev03.pdf|publisher=Directorate General of Electricity|language=id|page=7|edition=33|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203081054/https://gatrik.esdm.go.id/assets/uploads/download_index/files/8f7e7-20211110-statistik-2020-rev03.pdf|archive-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> Although reliance on domestic coal and imported oil has increased between 2010 and 2019,<ref name="USEIA"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gielen|first1= Dolf|last2=Saygin|first2= Deger|last3=Rigter|first3= Jasper|date=March 2017|title=Renewable Energy Prospects: Indonesia, a REmap analysis|journal=International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)|isbn=978-92-95111-19-6}}</ref> Indonesia has seen progress in renewable energy, with hydropower and geothermal being the most abundant sources that account for more than 8% in the country's energy mix.<ref name="USEIA"/> A prime example of the former is the country's largest dam, [[Jatiluhur Dam|Jatiluhur]], which has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW that feeds into the Java grid managed by the State Electricity Company (''[[Perusahaan Listrik Negara]]'', PLN). Furthermore, Indonesia has the potential for solar, wind, biomass and ocean energy,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pwc.com/id/en/energy-utilities-mining/assets/power/power-guide-2017.pdf|title=Power in Indonesia 2017|publisher=PwC|date=November 2017|access-date=2018-09-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913064347/https://www.pwc.com/id/en/energy-utilities-mining/assets/power/power-guide-2017.pdf|archive-date=2018-09-13}}</ref> although as of 2021, power generation from these sources remain small.
=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in Indonesia}}
[[File:STS-41-B Palapa B-2 deployment.jpg|thumb|[[Palapa]] satellite launch in 1984|alt=]]
Government expenditure on research and development is relatively low (0.3% of GDP in 2019),<ref>{{cite book|last=Huda|first= Nur; Pawennei, Irsan; Ratri, Andhina; L. Taylor, Veronica|date=2020-12-01|title=Making Indonesia's Research and Development Better|url=https://www.ksi-indonesia.org/assets/uploads/original/2021/02/ksi-1613637314.pdf|publisher=Centre for Innovation Policy and Governance|page=53|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928070135/https://www.ksi-indonesia.org/assets/uploads/original/2021/02/ksi-1613637314.pdf|archive-date=2021-09-28}}</ref> and Indonesia only ranked 87th (out of 132 economies) on the 2021 [[Global Innovation Index]] report.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dutta|first= Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; León Rivera, Lorena; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha|date=2021-09-20|title=Global Innovation Index 2021: Tracking Innovation through the COVID-19 Crisis|url=https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/gii-2021-report|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|page=94|edition=14}}</ref> Historical examples of scientific and technological developments include the paddy cultivation technique [[Terrace (agriculture)|''terasering'']], which is common in Southeast Asia, and the [[pinisi]] boats by the [[Bugis]] and [[Makassar people]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kastenmarine.com/phinisi_history.htm|title=History of the Indonesian Pinisi|last=Kasten|first= Michael|access-date=2016-12-09|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209081906/http://www.kastenmarine.com/phinisi_history.htm|archive-date=2016-12-09}}</ref> In the 1980s, Indonesian engineer [[Tjokorda Raka Sukawati]] invented a road construction technique named [[Sosrobahu]] that later became widely used in several countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/12/11/man-1000-shoulders.html|title=Man of 1000 shoulders|last=Sertori|first= Trisha|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2014-12-11|access-date=2015-03-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320110612/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/12/11/man-1000-shoulders.html|archive-date=2015-03-20}}</ref> The country is also an active producer of passenger trains and freight wagons with its state-owned company, the [[Industri Kereta Api|Indonesian Railway Industry]] (INKA), and has exported trains abroad.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.tempo.co/read/news/2017/02/04/056843078/INKA-to-Manufacture-Trains-for-Export-to-Bangladesh-Sri-Lanka|title=INKA to Manufacture Trains for Export to Bangladesh, Sri Lanka|last=Rika Stevani|first= Louis|publisher=Tempo|date=2017-02-04|access-date=2018-01-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115032449/https://en.tempo.co/read/news/2017/02/04/056843078/INKA-to-Manufacture-Trains-for-Export-to-Bangladesh-Sri-Lanka|archive-date=2018-01-15}}</ref>
Indonesia has a long history of developing military and small commuter aircraft. It is the only country in Southeast Asia to build and produce aircraft. The state-owned [[Indonesian Aerospace|Indonesian Aerospace company]] (''PT. Dirgantara Indonesia'') has provided components for [[Boeing]] and [[Airbus]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://properti.kompas.com/read/2011/10/26/08061555/presiden.kunjungi.pt.dirgantara.indonesia.|title=President Visits PT Dirgantara Indonesia|publisher=Kompas|last=Liu|first= Hindra|date=2011-10-26|access-date=2011-05-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513132842/https://properti.kompas.com/read/2011/10/26/08061555/presiden.kunjungi.pt.dirgantara.indonesia.|archive-date=2021-05-13}}</ref> The company also collaborated with [[EADS CASA]] of Spain to develop the [[CASA/IPTN CN-235|CN-235]], which has been used by several countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://finance.detik.com/industri/3135372/ptdi-ekspor-40-unit-pesawat-terlaris-cn235|title=PTDI Ekspor 40 Unit Pesawat, Terlaris CN235|last=Dwi Sutianto|first= Feby|publisher=detikFinance|date=2016-02-05|language=id|access-date=2017-08-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815175446/https://finance.detik.com/industri/3135372/ptdi-ekspor-40-unit-pesawat-terlaris-cn235|archive-date=2017-08-15}}</ref> Former President [[B. J. Habibie]] played a vital role in this achievement.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/01/30/habibie-receives-honorary-doctorate.html|title=Habibie receives honorary doctorate|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2010-01-30|access-date=2016-03-05|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305072336/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/01/30/habibie-receives-honorary-doctorate.html|archive-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> Indonesia has also joined the [[South Korea]]n programme to manufacture the 4.5-generation fighter jet [[KAI KF-21 Boramae]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/kf-x-paper-pushing-or-peer-fighter-program-010647/|title=KF-X Fighter: Korea's Future Homegrown Jet|publisher=Defense Industry Daily|date=2017-11-21|access-date=2017-11-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123011721/https://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/kf-x-paper-pushing-or-peer-fighter-program-010647/|archive-date=2017-11-23}}</ref>
Indonesia has a space programme and space agency, the [[National Institute of Aeronautics and Space]] (''Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional'', LAPAN). In the 1970s, Indonesia became the first developing country to operate a satellite system called [[Palapa]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/08/archives/indonesian-satellite-to-be-launched-communications-craft-is-first.html|title=Indonesian Satellite to Be Launched|last=Mcelheny|first= Victor K.|newspaper=The New York Times|date=1976-07-08|access-date=2018-08-02|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802050737/https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/08/archives/indonesian-satellite-to-be-launched-communications-craft-is-first.html|archive-date=2018-08-02}}</ref> a series of communication satellites owned by [[Indosat]]. The first satellite, PALAPA A1, was launched on 8 July 1976 from the [[Kennedy Space Center]] in Florida, United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spacejournal.ohio.edu/issue8/his_marwah3.html|title=Planning and Development of Indonesia's Domestic Communications Satellite System PALAPA|publisher=Online Journal of Space Communication|date=2005|access-date=2015-05-18|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518111302/http://spacejournal.ohio.edu/issue8/his_marwah3.html|archive-date=2015-05-18}}</ref> {{As of|2019}}, Indonesia has launched 18 satellites for various purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.n2yo.com/satellites/?c=INDO&t=country|title=Satellites by countries and organizations: Indonesia|publisher=N2YO|access-date=2019-11-20}}</ref>
=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Indonesia}}[[File:Borobudur-Nothwest-view.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Borobudur]] in [[Central Java]], the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd.|date=2003|location=Melbourne|pages=211–215|isbn=978-1-74059-154-6|last=Elliott|first= Mark}}</ref>]]
[[Tourism in Indonesia|Tourism]] contributed around {{currency|9.8 billion|USD|passthrough=yes}} to GDP in 2020, and in the previous year, Indonesia received 15.4 million visitors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/reports/travel-and-tourism-development-index-2021/explore-the-data#report-nav|title=Travel and Tourism Development Index 2021 Edition - Interactive Data and Economy Profiles|publisher=World Economic Forum|date=2021|access-date=2022-12-26|url-status=live}}</ref> Overall, China, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, and Japan are the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/indicator/16/327/3/jumlah-kedatangan-wisatawan-mancanegara-ke-indonesia-menurut-negara-tempat-tinggal.html|title=Number of International Tourist Arrivals to Indonesia by Country of Residence|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|date=2002–2019|access-date=2020-12-06|language=id}}</ref> Since 2011, ''Wonderful Indonesia'' has been the country's international marketing campaign slogan to promote tourism.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/01/06/tourism-ministry-set-launch-%E2%80%98wonderful-indonesia%E2%80%99-campaign.html|title=Tourism Ministry set to launch 'Wonderful Indonesia' campaign|last=Erwida|first= Maulia|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2011-01-06|access-date=2014-03-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312211940/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/01/06/tourism-ministry-set-launch-%E2%80%98wonderful-indonesia%E2%80%99-campaign.html|archive-date=2014-03-12}}</ref>
[[File:Raja Ampat 2.jpg|right|thumb|[[Raja Ampat Islands]], [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]], has the highest recorded level of diversity in marine life, according to [[Conservation International]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/09/indonesia/doubilet-text|title=Indonesia Undersea|last=Doubilet|first= David|magazine=National Geographic|date=September 2007|access-date=2009-08-06|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806040153/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/09/indonesia/doubilet-text|archive-date=2009-08-06}}</ref>]]
Nature and culture are prime attractions of Indonesian tourism. The country has a well-preserved natural ecosystem with rainforests stretching over about 57% of Indonesia's land (225 million acres). Forests on Sumatra and Kalimantan are examples of popular destinations, such as the Orangutan wildlife reserve. Moreover, Indonesia has one of the world's longest coastlines, measuring {{convert|54716|km|0}}. The ancient [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] temples, as well as [[Toraja]] and [[Bali]] with their traditional festivities, are some of the popular destinations for cultural tourism.<ref name="pariwisata">{{cite book|title=Informasi Pariwisata Nusantara|language=id|publisher=[[Ministry of Tourism (Indonesia)|Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia]]|year=2014|location=Jakarta|type=Not for sale}}</ref>
Indonesia has [[List of World Heritage Sites in Indonesia|nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites]], including the [[Komodo National Park]] and the [[Ombilin Coal Mine|Sawahlunto Coal Mine]]; and a further 19 in a tentative list that includes [[Bunaken National Park]] and [[Raja Ampat Islands]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/id|title=Indonesia – Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=2016-11-27}}</ref> Other attractions include specific points in Indonesian history, such as the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in the [[old town]]s of [[Kota Tua Jakarta|Jakarta]] and [[Dutch architecture in Semarang|Semarang]] and the [[List of palaces in Indonesia|royal palaces]] of [[Pagaruyung Palace|Pagaruyung]], [[Ubud Palace|Ubud]], and [[Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat|Yogyakarta]].<ref name="pariwisata" />
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Indonesia|Indonesians}}
{{See also|List of Indonesian cities by population|List of metropolitan areas in Indonesia}}
[[File:Indonesia metropolitan areas labeled map.svg|thumb|Indonesia's ten metropolitan areas labeled with their populations]]
The [[2020 Indonesian census|2020 census]] recorded [[Demographics of Indonesia|Indonesia's population]] as 270.2 million, the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|fourth largest in the world]], with a moderately high population growth rate of 1.25%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://waspada.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=182106:fifty-years-needed-to-bring-population-growth-to-zero&catid=30:english-news&Itemid=101|title=Fifty years needed to bring population growth to zero|publisher=Waspada Online|date=2011-03-19|access-date=2011-05-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510014541/http://waspada.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=182106:fifty-years-needed-to-bring-population-growth-to-zero&catid=30:english-news&Itemid=101|archive-date=2011-05-10}}</ref> [[Java]] is the world's most populous island,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-population-island|title=Highest population, island|publisher=Guinness World Records|access-date=2017-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606183647/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-population-island|archive-date=2017-06-06|url-status=live}}</ref> where 56% of the country's population lives.<ref name="2020census">{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf|page=9|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|title=Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020|language=id|date=2021-01-21|access-date=2021-01-21|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122154418/https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf|archive-date=2021-01-22}}</ref> The population density is 141 people per km<sup>2</sup> (365 per sq mi),<ref name="2020census" /> ranking 88th in the world, although Java has a population density of 1,067 people per km<sup>2</sup> (2,435 per sq mi). In 1961, the first post-colonial census recorded a total of 97 million people.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQbd3-G6riUC|title=Population Trends in Indonesia|last=Nitisastro|first= Widjojo|publisher=Equinox Publishing|via=Google Books|page=268|date=2006|access-date=2015-09-05|isbn=9789793780436}}</ref> It is expected to grow to around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_DataBooklet.pdf|title=World Population Prospect: 2017 Revision|publisher=United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs – Population Division|date=2017-06-21|access-date=2017-12-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220083223/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_DataBooklet.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-20}}</ref> The country currently possesses a relatively young population, with a median age of 30.2 years (2017 estimate).<ref name="CIA" />
The spread of the population is uneven throughout the archipelago, with a varying habitats and levels of [[List of Indonesian provinces by Human Development Index|development]], ranging from the [[megacity]] of Jakarta to [[Uncontacted peoples|uncontacted tribes]] in Papua.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191|title=BBC: First contact with isolated tribes?|publisher=Survival International|date=2007-01-25|access-date=2017-07-30|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730073348/http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191|archive-date=2017-07-30}}</ref> As of 2017, about 54.7% of the population lives in [[urban area]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-urban|title=Share of people living in urban areas, 2017|publisher=Our World in Data|date=2017|access-date=2020-09-05}}</ref> Jakarta is the country's [[primate city]] and the [[List of largest cities|second-most populous urban area globally]], with over 34 million residents.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demographia World Urban Areas, 15th Annual Edition|url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|publisher=[[Demographia]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207210003/http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|archive-date=2020-02-07|date=April 2019}}</ref> About 8 million [[Overseas Indonesians|Indonesians live overseas]]; most settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, South Africa, Singapore, Hong Kong, the United States, and Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fois.or.id/tapping-the-indonesian-diaspora-potential-97baef4e98ba?gi=fa637167c9c7|title=Tapping the Indonesian Diaspora Potential|last=Krisetya|first= Beltsazar|publisher=Forum for International Studies|date=2016-09-14|access-date=2017-12-20|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220084622/https://fois.or.id/tapping-the-indonesian-diaspora-potential-97baef4e98ba?gi=fa637167c9c7|archive-date=2017-12-20}}</ref>
{{Largest cities of Indonesia|class=info}}
=== Ethnic groups and languages ===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Native Indonesians|Languages of Indonesia}}
[[File:Indonesia Ethnic Groups Map English.svg|upright=1.5|thumb|A map of ethnic groups in Indonesia|alt=]]
Indonesia is an ethnically diverse country, with around 1,300 distinct native ethnic groups.<ref name="BPS" /> Most Indonesians are descended from [[Austronesian peoples]] whose languages had origins in [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]], which possibly originated in what is now [[Taiwan]]. Another major grouping is the [[Melanesians]], who inhabit eastern Indonesia (the [[Maluku Islands]], [[Western New Guinea]] and the eastern part of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]).{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=5–7}}{{sfn|Witton|2003|pp=139, 181, 251, 435}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dawson|first1= B.|last2=Gillow|first2= J.|title=The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia|publisher=Thames and Hudson Ltd.|year=1994|location=London|page=7|isbn=978-0-500-34132-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://gln.kemdikbud.go.id/glnsite/diaspora-melanesia-di-nusantara/|title=Diaspora Melanesia di Nusantara|access-date=2022-08-24|language=id|author1=Truman Simanjuntak|author2=Herawati Sudoyo|author3=Multamia R.M.T. Lauder|author4=Allan Lauder|author5=Ninuk Kleden Probonegoro|author6=Rovicky Dwi Putrohari|author7=Desy Pola Usmany|author8=Yudha P.N. Yapsenang|author9=Edward L. Poelinggomang|author10=Gregorius Neonbasu|publisher=Direktorat Sejarah, Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan|website=gln.kemdikbud.go.id|isbn=978-602-1289-19-8|year=2015}}</ref>
The [[Javanese people|Javanese]] are the largest ethnic group, constituting 40.2% of the population,<ref name="BPS" /> and are politically dominant.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kingsbury|first=Damien|title=Autonomy and Disintegration in Indonesia|publisher=Routledge|pages=131|isbn=0-415-29737-0|year=2003}}</ref> They are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java and also in sizeable numbers in most provinces. The [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] are the next largest group (15.4%), followed by [[Batak people|Batak]], [[Madurese people|Madurese]], [[Betawi people|Betawi]], [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], [[Bugis people|Bugis]] and [[Malay Indonesians|Malay]] people.{{efn|Small but significant populations of [[Overseas Chinese|ethnic Chinese]], [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indians]], Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.}} A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=256}}
The country's official language is [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], a variant of [[Malay language|Malay]] based on its [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige dialect]], which had been the archipelago's ''[[lingua franca]]'' for centuries. It was [[Youth Pledge|promoted by nationalists in the 1920s]] and achieved official status in 1945 under the name ''Bahasa Indonesia''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.languagetranslation.com/translation/languages/indonesian-translation4.html|title=The History of Indonesian|publisher=Language Translation, Inc.|access-date=2016-01-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043125/http://www.languagetranslation.com/translation/languages/indonesian-translation4.html|archive-date=2016-03-04}}</ref> Due to centuries-long contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences.{{efn|These influences include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Hindustani, Sanskrit, Tamil, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese and English.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dannyreviews.com/h/Indonesian_Language.html|title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society|last=Sneddon|first= James N.|publisher=University of South Wales Press Ltd.|date=April 2013|access-date=2018-01-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729003635/http://dannyreviews.com/h/Indonesian_Language.html|archive-date=2017-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Anwar|first= Khaidir|url=http://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_1976_num_12_1_1296|title=Minangkabau, Background of the main pioneers of modern standard Malay in Indonesia|journal=Archipel|year=1976|volume=12|pages=77–93|doi=10.3406/arch.1976.1296|access-date=2017-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|title=Language interference: Indonesian and English|last=Amerl|first= Ivana|publisher=MED Magazine|date=May 2006|access-date=2018-01-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729050607/http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|archive-date=2017-07-29}}</ref>}} Nearly every Indonesian speaks the language due to its widespread use in education, academics, communications, business, politics, and mass media. Most Indonesians also speak at least one of more than 700 local languages,<ref name="ethnologue">{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty-first edition|last1=Simons|first1=Gary F.|last2=Fennig|first2=Charles D.|publisher=SIL International|access-date=2018-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626224541/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages|archive-date=2019-06-26}}</ref> often as their first language. Most belong to the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]], while over 270 [[Papuan languages]] are spoken in eastern Indonesia.<ref name="ethnologue" /> Of these, [[Javanese language|Javanese]] is the most widely spoken<ref name="CIA" /> and has co-official status in the [[Special Region of Yogyakarta]].<ref>{{cite act|type=Regional Regulation|index=2|date=2021|legislature=[[List of governors of Yogyakarta|Governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta]]|title=Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa|url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/162614/perda-no-2-tahun-2021|language=id}}</ref>
In 1930, [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and other Europeans (''[[Totok]]''), Eurasians, and derivative people like the [[Indo people|Indos]], numbered 240,000 or 0.4% of the total population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/Content/NIDI/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf|title=The Demographic History of the Dutch in the East Indies|last=van Nimwegen|first= Nico|date=2002|publisher=Nederlands Interdisciplinair Demografisch Instituut|access-date=2011-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723103734/http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/Content/NIDI/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> Historically, they constituted only a tiny fraction of the native population and remain so today. Also, the Dutch language never had a substantial number of speakers or official status despite the Dutch presence for almost 350 years.{{sfn|Baker|Prys Jones|1998|p=202}} The small minorities that can speak it or [[Dutch-based creole languages]] fluently are the aforementioned ethnic groups and descendants of Dutch colonisers. This reflected the Dutch colonial empire's primary purpose, which was commercial exchange as opposed to sovereignty over homogeneous landmasses.<ref name=Ward>{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Kerry|title=Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the Dutch East India Company|date=2009|pages=322–342|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-88586-7}}</ref> Today, there is some degree of fluency by either educated members of the oldest generation or legal professionals,{{sfn|Ammon|Dittmar|Mattheier|Trudgill|2006|p=2017}} as specific law codes are still only available in Dutch.{{sfn|Booij|1999|p=2}}
=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Indonesia}}
Despite guaranteeing religious freedom in the constitution,<ref>Chapter XA, Article 28E, 1st Clause of the 1945 Constitution.</ref><ref name="UUD45" /> the government officially recognises only [[Religion in Indonesia|six religions]]: [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]], [[Protestantism in Indonesia|Protestantism]], [[Roman Catholicism in Indonesia|Roman Catholicism]], [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hinduism]], [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]], and [[Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia|Confucianism]],<ref>{{cite book|surname=Shah|given=Dian A. H.|year=2017|title=Constitutions, Religion and Politics in Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ek4DwAAQBAJ&q=Constitutions%2C%20Religion%20and%20Politics%20in%20Asia%3A%20Indonesia%2C%20Malaysia&pg=PR6|isbn=978-1-107-18334-6}}</ref><ref name="Marshall">{{cite journal|last=Marshall|first=Paul|date=2018|title=The Ambiguities of Religious Freedom in Indonesia|journal=The Review of Faith & International Affairs|volume=16|issue=1|pages=85–96|doi=10.1080/15570274.2018.1433588|doi-access=free}}</ref> with [[indigenous religions]] only partly acknowledged.<ref name="Marshall" /> With 231 million adherents (86.7%) in 2018, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|p=379}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|title=Data Based on the Number of Followers According to Religion|publisher=[[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)]]|date=2018|access-date=2021-05-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903221250/https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|archive-date=2020-09-03}}</ref> with [[Sunni Islam|Sunnis]] being the majority (99%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-sunni-and-shia/|title=Sunni and Shia Muslims|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=2011-01-27|access-date=2017-05-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506114552/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-sunni-and-shia/|archive-date=2017-05-06}}</ref> The [[Shia Islam in Indonesia|Shias]] and [[Ahmadiyya in Indonesia|Ahmadis]], respectively, constitute 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of Muslims.<ref name="Marshall" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/268976.pdf|title=2016 Indonesia International Religious Freedom Report|author=((Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor))|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2017|access-date=2017-12-19|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219044652/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/268976.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-19}}</ref> About 10% of Indonesians are [[Christians]], who form the [[Christianity in Indonesia|majority in several provinces in eastern Indonesia]].<ref>{{Citation |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=2014 |title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2014, Indonesia
|publisher=U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm?year=2014&dlid=238298 |access-date=28 December 2015 }}</ref> Most [[Hindu]]s are [[Balinese people|Balinese]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Oey|first= Eric|title=Bali|place=Singapore|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1997|edition=3rd|isbn=978-962-593-028-2}}</ref> and most [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] are [[Chinese Indonesians]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFNKQcvGNSAC&pg=PA98|title=Ethnic Chinese in Contemporary Indonesia|editor=Suryadinata, Leo|year=2008|isbn=9789812308351}}</ref>
[[File:Salah Satu Upacara Besar Di Pura Agung Besakih.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Hindu]] prayer ceremony at [[Besakih Temple]] in [[Bali]], the only Indonesian province where [[Balinese Hinduism|Hinduism]] is the predominant religion]]
The natives of the Indonesian archipelago originally practised indigenous [[animism]] and [[dynamism (metaphysics)|dynamism]], beliefs that are common to [[Austronesian peoples]].<ref name="Ooi" /> They worshipped and revered ancestral spirit and believed that supernatural spirits (''[[hyang]]'') might inhabit certain places such as large trees, stones, forests, mountains, or sacred sites.<ref name="Ooi">{{cite book|title=Southeast Asia: A historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor (3 volume set)|editor=Ooi, Keat Gin|publisher=ABC-CLIO|date=2004|page=177|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2}}</ref> Examples of Indonesian native belief systems include the [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] [[Sunda Wiwitan]], [[Dayak people|Dayak]]'s [[Kaharingan]], and the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] [[Kejawèn]]. They have significantly impacted how other faiths are practised, evidenced by a large proportion of people—such as the Javanese [[abangan]], [[Balinese Hinduism|Balinese Hindus]], and Dayak Christians—practising a less [[orthodoxy|orthodox]], [[syncretism|syncretic]] form of their religion.<ref>Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, ''Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life'', PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp. 15–18 {{ISBN|979-605-406-X}}, {{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2003/23829.htm|title=2003 International Religious Freedom Report|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2003|access-date=2012-01-13}}</ref>
[[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hindu]] influences reached the archipelago as early as the first century CE.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]], The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in {{Google books|X7YfAAAAIAAJ|Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions|pages=1–54}}</ref> The [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] [[Kingdoms of Sunda|Kingdom]] of [[Salakanagara]] in western Java around 130 was the first historically recorded [[Greater India|Indianised]] kingdom in the archipelago.<ref>Darsa, Undang A. 2004. "Kropak 406; Carita Parahyangan dan Fragmen Carita Parahyangan", Makalah disampaikan dalam Kegiatan Bedah Naskah Kuna yang diselenggarakan oleh Balai Pengelolaan Museum Negeri Sri Baduga. Bandung-Jatinangor: Fakultas Sastra Universitas Padjadjaran: hlm. 1–23.</ref> [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]] arrived around the 6th century,<ref>{{cite web|title=Buddhism in Indonesia|work=Buddha Dharma Education Association|publisher=Buddha Dharma Education Association|year=2005|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/indo-txt.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510074118/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/indo-txt.htm|archive-date=2019-05-10|access-date=2006-10-03}}</ref> and its history in Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism, as some empires based on Buddhism had their roots around the same period. The archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful and influential Hindu and Buddhist empires such as [[Majapahit]], [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra]], [[Srivijaya]], and Mataram. Though no longer a majority, Hinduism and Buddhism remain to have a substantial influence on Indonesian culture.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rachman|first1= T.|date=2013|title='Indianization' of Indonesia in an Historical Sketch|journal=International Journal of Nusantara Islam|volume=1|issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/india/global-influence-of-hinduism/influence-hinduism-buddhism-indonesian-culture/|title=Influence of Hinduism and Buddhism on Indonesian culture|publisher=Sanskriti Magazine|last=Sedyawati|first= Edi|date=2014-12-19|access-date=2020-12-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415194440/https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/india/global-influence-of-hinduism/influence-hinduism-buddhism-indonesian-culture/|archive-date=2017-04-15}}</ref>
[[File:Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|[[Baiturrahman Grand Mosque]] in [[Banda Aceh]], [[Aceh]]. The [[spread of Islam in Indonesia]] began in the region.]]
[[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]] was introduced by [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] traders of the [[Shafi'i]] [[Madhhab|school]] as well as [[Sufism|Sufi]] traders from the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[South Arabia|southern Arabia]] as early as the 8th century CE.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 2: M–Z|last=Martin|first=Richard C.|year=2004|publisher=Macmillan}}</ref><ref>Gerhard Bowering et al. (2012), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}, pp. xvi</ref> For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, resulting in a distinct form of Islam (''[[pesantren|santri]]'').{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=12–14}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia – Bhineka Tunggal Ika|publisher=Centre Universitaire d'Informatique|url=http://cui.unige.ch/~luthi/download/indo.html|access-date=2006-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060914023845/http://cui.unige.ch/~luthi/download/indo.html|archive-date=2006-09-14}}</ref> Trade, [[Islamic missionary activity]] such as by the [[Wali Sanga]] and Chinese explorer [[Zheng He]], and military campaigns by [[Sultan#Southeast and East Asia|several sultanates]] helped accelerate the [[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|spread of Islam]].<ref>Taufiq Tanasaldy, Regime Change and Ethnic Politics in Indonesia, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-90-04-26373-4}}</ref><ref>Gerhard Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}</ref> By the end of the 16th century, it had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion of [[Java#Religion|Java]] and [[Sumatra#Religion|Sumatra]].
[[File:Jakarta Cathedral During Mass.jpg|thumb|left|[[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] at the [[St. Mary of the Assumption Cathedral, Jakarta|Jakarta Cathedral]]|alt=]]
[[Catholic Church in Indonesia|Catholicism]] was brought by Portuguese traders and missionaries such as [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Francis Xavier]], who visited and baptised several thousand locals.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=25, 26, 28}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sydneycatholic.org/events/pilgrimageofgrace/about.shtml|title=About St Francis Xavier|publisher=Catholic Archdiocese of Sydney|access-date=2018-07-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116164225/https://www.sydneycatholic.org/events/pilgrimageofgrace/about.shtml|archive-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> Its spread faced difficulty due to the Dutch East India Company policy of banning the religion and the Dutch hostility due to the [[Eighty Years' War]] against Catholic Spain's rule. [[Protestantism in Indonesia|Protestantism]] is mostly a result of [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] and [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] missionary efforts during the Dutch colonial era.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=28, 62}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=22}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Goh|first= Robbie B.H.|title=Christianity in Southeast Asia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|page=80|isbn=978-981-230-297-7|year=2005}}</ref> Although they are the most common branch, there is a multitude of other denominations elsewhere in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reformiert-online.net/weltweit/64_eng.php|title=Indonesia – Asia|publisher=Reformed Online|access-date=2006-12-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061205042413/http://reformiert-online.net/weltweit/64_eng.php|archive-date=2006-12-05}}</ref>
There was a [[History of the Jews in Indonesia|small Jewish presence in the archipelago]] until 1945, mostly Dutch and some Baghdadi Jews. Since most left after Indonesia proclaimed independence, [[Judaism]] was never accorded official status, and only a tiny number of Jews remain today, mostly in Jakarta and Surabaya.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bh.org.il/jewish-community-indonesia/|title=The Jewish Community in Indonesia|author=Ayala Klemperer-Markman|translator=Julie Ann Levy|publisher=Beit Hatfutsot|access-date=2020-03-12|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804011540/https://www.bh.org.il/jewish-community-indonesia/|archive-date=2019-08-04}}</ref>
At the national and local level, Indonesia's political leadership and civil society groups have played a crucial role in interfaith relations, both positively and negatively. The invocation of the first principle of Indonesia's philosophical foundation, Pancasila<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/86.htm|title=Pancasila|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|date=2017-02-03|access-date=2017-02-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205010135/http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/86.htm|archive-date=2017-02-05}}</ref>{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=117}} (i.e. the belief in the one and only God), often serves as a reminder of religious tolerance,<ref>{{cite book|surname=Madjid|given=Nurcholish|title=Islamic Roots of Modern Pluralism: Indonesian Experience|publisher=Studia Islamika: Indonesian Journal for Islamic Studies|year=1994}}</ref> though instances of intolerance have occurred.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-04-16 |title=The struggle of religious minorities in Indonesia |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-22165159 |access-date=2023-03-01}}</ref><ref name="RIP" /> An overwhelming majority of Indonesians consider religion to be essential and an integral part of life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/how-religious-commitment-varies-by-country-among-people-of-all-ages/|title=How religious commitment varies by country among people of all ages|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=2018-06-13|access-date=2018-11-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827174002/http://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/how-religious-commitment-varies-by-country-among-people-of-all-ages/|archive-date=2018-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patheos.com/blogs/tippling/2018/10/28/religion-in-indonesia-an-insight/|title=Religion in Indonesia: An Insight|last=Pearce|first= Jonathan MS|publisher=Patheos|date=2018-10-28|access-date=2018-11-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028170242/https://www.patheos.com/blogs/tippling/2018/10/28/religion-in-indonesia-an-insight/|archive-date=2018-10-28}}</ref>
=== Education and health ===
{{Main|Education in Indonesia|Health in Indonesia}}
[[File:ITB 1.jpg|thumb|[[Bandung Institute of Technology]] in West Java|alt=]]
Education is compulsory for 12 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.worldbank.org/education/awakening-indonesia-s-golden-generation-extending-compulsory-education-9-12-years|title=Awakening Indonesia's Golden Generation: Extending Compulsory Education from 9 to 12 Years|last1=al-Samarrai|first1=Samer|last2=Cerdan-Infantes|first2=Pedro|publisher=The World Bank Blog|date=2013-03-09|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151231/http://blogs.worldbank.org/education/awakening-indonesia-s-golden-generation-extending-compulsory-education-9-12-years|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> Parents can choose between state-run, non-sectarian schools or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools, supervised by the ministries of Education and Religion, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/jais/volume/docs/vol14/v14_03_tan_047-062.pdf|title=Educative Tradition and Islamic Schools in Indonesia|last=Tan|first= Charlene|publisher=Nanyang Technological University|date=2014|access-date=2016-03-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327141040/https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/jais/volume/docs/vol14/v14_03_tan_047-062.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-27}}</ref> Private international schools that do not follow the [[Education in Indonesia#2013 curriculum|national curriculum]] are also available. The enrolment rate is 93% for primary education, 79% for secondary education, and 36% for tertiary education (2018).<ref name="UIS">{{cite web|url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/id|title=Indonesia|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics|date=2016-11-27|access-date=2020-09-05}}</ref> The literacy rate is 96% (2018), and the government spends about 3.6% of GDP (2015) on education.<ref name="UIS" /> In 2018, there were 4,670 higher educational institutions in Indonesia, with most (74%) located in Sumatra and Java.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Huda|first1= Nur|last2=Pawennei|first2=Irsan|last3=Ratri|first3=Andhina|last4=Taylor|first4=Veronica L.|date=2020-12-01|title=Making Indonesia's Research and Development Better|url=https://www.ksi-indonesia.org/assets/uploads/original/2021/02/ksi-1613637314.pdf|publisher=Centre for Innovation Policy and Governance|page=36|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928070135/https://www.ksi-indonesia.org/assets/uploads/original/2021/02/ksi-1613637314.pdf|archive-date=2021-09-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asiasentinel.com/p/indonesia-unequal-higher-education|title=Indonesia's Unequal Higher Education|website=Asia Sentinel|date=2018-05-04|access-date=2020-12-03|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924060508/https://www.asiasentinel.com/p/indonesia-unequal-higher-education|archive-date=2020-09-24}}</ref> According to the [[QS World University Rankings]], Indonesia's top universities are the [[University of Indonesia]], [[Gadjah Mada University]] and the [[Bandung Institute of Technology]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/indonesia?country=[ID]&sorting=[rankings_htol|title=List of Universities in Indonesia|publisher=[[QS World University Rankings]]|access-date=2022-06-12}}</ref>
Government expenditure on healthcare was about 3.3% of GDP in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.searo.who.int/entity/health_situation_trends/cp_ino.pdf?ua=1|title=2018 Health SDG Profile: Indonesia|publisher=World Health Organization|date=July 2018|access-date=2018-12-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206041612/http://www.searo.who.int/entity/health_situation_trends/cp_ino.pdf?ua=1|archive-date=2018-12-06}}</ref> As part of an attempt to achieve universal health care, the government launched the National Health Insurance (''[[Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional]]'', JKN) in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/01/02/birth-indonesia-s-medicare-fasten-your-seatbelts.html|title=Birth of Indonesia's 'Medicare': Fasten your seatbelts|last=Thabrany|first=Hasbullah|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2014-01-02|access-date=2018-08-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110053307/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/01/02/birth-indonesia-s-medicare-fasten-your-seatbelts.html|archive-date=2014-01-10}}</ref> It includes coverage for a range of services from the public and also private firms that have opted to join the scheme. Despite remarkable improvements in recent decades, such as rising life expectancy (from 62.3 years in 1990 to 71.7 years in 2019)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Life expectancy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy|access-date=2020-09-05|website=Our World in Data}}</ref> and declining child mortality (from 84 deaths per 1,000 births in 1990 to 23.9 deaths in 2019),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Child mortality rate|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/child-mortality-igme|access-date=2021-11-16|website=Our World in Data}}</ref> challenges remain, including maternal and child health, low [[air quality]], [[malnutrition]], high rate of [[smoking]], and infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite journal|title=On the road to universal health care in Indonesia, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016|journal=The Lancet|author1=Nafsiah Mboi|author2=Indra Murty Surbakti|author3=Indang Trihandini|author4=Iqbal Elyazar|author5=Karen Houston Smith|author6=Pungkas Bahjuri Ali|author7=Soewarta Kosen|author8=Kristin Flemons|author9=Sarah E Ray|author10=Jackie Cao|author11=Scott D Glenn|author12=Molly K Miller-Petrie|author13=Meghan D Mooney|author14=Jeffrey L Ried|author15=Dina Nur Anggraini Ningrum|author16=Fachmi Idris|author17=Kemal N Siregar|author18=Pandu Harimurti|author19=Robert S Bernstein|author20=Tikki Pangestu|author21=Yuwono Sidharta|author22=Mohsen Naghavi|author23=Christopher J L Murray|author24=Simon I Hay|display-authors=5|volume=392|issue=10147|pages=581–591|year=2018|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30595-6|pmid=29961639|pmc=6099123}}</ref>
=== Issues ===
{{Main|Human rights in Indonesia}}
[[File:Jakarta riot 14 May 1998.jpg|thumb|Riots on the streets of Jakarta on 14 May 1998]]
In the economic sphere, there is a gap in wealth, unemployment rate, and health between densely populated islands and economic centres (such as [[Sumatra]] and [[Java]]) and sparsely populated, disadvantaged areas (such as [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] and [[Western New Guinea|Papua]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://papuaweb.org/dlib/s123/upton/_phd.pdf|title=The impact of migration on the people of Papua, Indonesia: A historical demographic analysis|last=Upton|first= Stuart|publisher=University of New South Wales|date=January 2009|access-date=2017-05-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510073548/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/s123/upton/_phd.pdf|archive-date=2017-05-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/08/indonesia-rising-divide|title=Indonesia's Rising Divide|publisher=World Bank|date=2015-12-07|access-date=2016-12-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214162710/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/08/indonesia-rising-divide|archive-date=2016-12-14}}</ref> This is created by a situation in which nearly 80% of Indonesia's population lives in the western parts of the archipelago<ref>{{cite web|url=https://crawford.anu.edu.au/acde/ip/pdf/lpem/2011/Zulfan_2011.pdf|title=Routine Violence in Java, Indonesia: Neo-Malthusian and Social Justice Perspectives|last1=Tadjoeddin|first1=Mohammad Zulfan|last2=Chowdury|first2=Anis|last3=Murshed|first3=Syed Mansoob|date=October 2010|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152048/https://crawford.anu.edu.au/acde/ip/pdf/lpem/2011/Zulfan_2011.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> and yet grows slower than the rest of the country.
In the social arena, numerous cases of racism and discrimination, especially [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|against Chinese Indonesians]] and [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuans]], have been well documented throughout Indonesia's history.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/06/16/black-lives-matter-papua-indonesia/|title=Black Lives Matter in Indonesia, Too|publisher=Foreign Policy|last=Varagur|first= Krithika|date=2020-06-16|access-date=2020-11-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622134847/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/06/16/black-lives-matter-papua-indonesia/|archive-date=2020-06-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/55a619124.html|title=Indonesia: Situation of Chinese-Indonesians, including Christians; treatment by society and authorities (2012 – April 2015)|publisher=Refworld|date=2015-04-02|access-date=2021-02-19|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814101752/https://www.refworld.org/docid/55a619124.html|archive-date=2015-08-14}}</ref> Such cases have sometimes led to violent conflicts, most notably the [[May 1998 riots of Indonesia|May 1998 riots]] and the [[Papua conflict]], which has continued since 1962. LGBT people also regularly face challenges. Although [[LGBT rights in Indonesia|LGBT issues]] have been relatively obscure, the 2010s (especially after 2016) has seen a rapid surge of [[anti-LGBT rhetoric]], putting LGBT Indonesians into a frequent subject of intimidation, discrimination, and even violence.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stapleton|first=Dan F.|date=2017-08-11|title=Will hardline Islamic attitudes stop Lombok becoming the 'new Bali'?|work=[[Financial Times]]|url=https://www.ft.com/content/d2c24350-7910-11e7-a3e8-60495fe6ca71|url-status=live|access-date=2022-05-01|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220422045550/https://www.ft.com/content/d2c24350-7910-11e7-a3e8-60495fe6ca71|archive-date=2022-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/its-ok-to-be-gay-in-indonesia-so-long-as-you-keep-it-quiet/a-6456222|title=It's OK to be gay in Indonesia so long as you keep it quiet|publisher=Deutsche Welle|date=2011-03-02|access-date=2020-11-19|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101200401/https://www.dw.com/en/its-ok-to-be-gay-in-indonesia-so-long-as-you-keep-it-quiet/a-6456222|archive-date=2018-01-01}}</ref> In addition, Indonesia has been reported to have sizeable numbers of [[child labor|child]] and [[forced labour]]ers, with the former being prevalent in the palm oil and tobacco industries, while the latter in the fishing industry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.equaltimes.org/slow-progress-in-the-fight-against|title=Slow progress in the fight against child labour in Indonesia|publisher=Equal Times|last=Villadiego|first= Laura|date=2018-04-25|access-date=2021-02-19|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120234321/https://www.equaltimes.org/slow-progress-in-the-fight-against|archive-date=2021-01-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Global Slavery Index 2018|url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/2018/findings/executive-summary/|publisher=Walk Free Foundation|date=2018-07-19}}</ref>
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Indonesia}} {{See also|National Intangible Cultural Heritage of Indonesia|Public holidays in Indonesia}}
The cultural history of the Indonesian archipelago spans more than two millennia. Influences from the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[mainland China]], the [[Middle East]], [[Europe]],<ref name="JForshee">{{cite web|url=http://demografi.bps.go.id/phpFileTree/bahan/kumpulan_tugas_mobilitas_pak_chotib/Kelompok_1/Referensi/Jill_Forshee_Culture_and_Customs_of_Indonesia_Culture_and_Customs_of_Asia__2006.pdf|title=Culture and Customs of Indonesia|last=Forshee|first=Jill|publisher=Greenwood Press|date=2006|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152700/http://demografi.bps.go.id/phpFileTree/bahan/kumpulan_tugas_mobilitas_pak_chotib/Kelompok_1/Referensi/Jill_Forshee_Culture_and_Customs_of_Indonesia_Culture_and_Customs_of_Asia__2006.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Henley|first= David|date=2015|encyclopedia=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism|pages=1–7|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781118663202.wberen460|chapter=Indonesia|isbn=978-1-118-66320-2}}</ref> [[Melanesians|Melanesian]] and [[Austronesian peoples]] have historically shaped the cultural, linguistic and religious makeup of the archipelago. As a result, modern-day Indonesia has a multicultural, multilingual and multi-ethnic society,<ref name="ethnologue" /><ref name="BPS" /> with a complex cultural mixture that differs significantly from the original indigenous cultures. Indonesia currently holds [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|twelve items of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage]], including a [[wayang]] puppet theatre, [[kris]], [[batik]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-batik-00170|title=Indonesian Batik|publisher=UNESCO|date=2009|access-date=2014-10-12}}</ref> [[pencak silat]], [[angklung]], [[gamelan]], and the three genres of traditional [[Balinese dance]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/indonesia-ID?info=elements-on-the-lists|title=Indonesia – Intangible heritage, cultural sector|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref>
=== Art and architecture ===
{{Main|Indonesian art|Architecture of Indonesia}}
{{See|Indonesian painting}}
[[File:Balinese Cockfighting.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional Balinese painting depicting [[cockfighting]]|alt=]]
Indonesian arts include both age-old art forms developed through centuries and recently developed [[contemporary art]]. Despite often displaying local ingenuity, Indonesian arts have absorbed foreign influences—most notably from [[India]], the [[Arab world]], [[China]] and [[Europe]], due to contacts and interactions facilitated, and often motivated by trade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expat.or.id/info/artshandicrafts-indonesia.html|title=Indonesian Arts and Crafts|publisher=Living in Indonesia: A site for expats|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227203136/http://www.expat.or.id/info/artshandicrafts-indonesia.html|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> Painting is an [[Balinese art|established and developed art in Bali]], where its people are famed for their artistry. Their painting tradition started as classical [[Kamasan]] or [[Wayang]] style visual narrative, derived from visual art discovered on ''[[Candi of Indonesia|candi]]'' bas reliefs in eastern Java.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aclhs-web-pro-1.ucc.usyd.edu.au/HEURIST_FILESTORE/balipaintings/Forgecataloguesinglefile.pdf|title=Balinese Traditional Paintings|last=Forge|first= Anthony|publisher=The Australian Museum|date=1978|access-date=2016-12-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220200212/http://aclhs-web-pro-1.ucc.usyd.edu.au/HEURIST_FILESTORE/balipaintings/Forgecataloguesinglefile.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-20}}</ref>
[[File:Traditional Toraja House.JPG|thumb|An avenue of [[Tongkonan]] houses in a [[Toraja]]n village, [[South Sulawesi]]|alt=]]
There have been numerous discoveries of [[Megalithic art|megalithic sculptures]] in Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indonesia.gr/indonesian-culture-arts-and-traditions/|title=Indonesian Culture; Arts and Tradition|publisher=Embassy of Indonesia, Athens|date=2010-09-30|access-date=2016-12-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226171504/http://indonesia.gr/indonesian-culture-arts-and-traditions/|archive-date=2016-12-26}}</ref> Subsequently, tribal art has flourished within the culture of [[Nias people|Nias]], [[Batak people|Batak]], [[Asmat people|Asmat]], [[Dayak people|Dayak]] and [[Toraja]].<ref>''Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia'' {{ISBN|978-0-8248-2924-7}} p. 113</ref><ref>''Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective : R.P. Soejono's Festschrift'' {{ISBN|979-26-2499-6}} pp. 298–299</ref> Wood and stone are common materials used as the media for sculpting among these tribes. Between the 8th and 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation developed refined stone sculpting art and architecture influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist [[Dharma|Dharmic]] civilisation. The temples of [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] are among the most famous examples of the practice.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592|title=Borobudur Temple Compounds|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010150711/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref>
As with the arts, Indonesian architecture has absorbed foreign influences that have brought cultural changes and profound effects on building styles and techniques. The most dominant has traditionally been [[Architecture of India|Indian]]; however, Chinese, Arab, and European influences have also been significant. Traditional carpentry, masonry, stone and woodwork techniques and decorations have thrived in [[vernacular architecture]], with numbers of traditional houses' (''[[rumah adat]]'') styles that have been developed. The traditional houses and settlements vary by ethnic group, and each has a specific custom and history.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indonesian Houses: Tradition and Transformation in Vernacular Architecture|editor1=Reimar Schefold|editor2=P. Nas|editor3=Gaudenz Domenig|page=5|publisher=NUS Press|year=2004|isbn=978-9971-69-292-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oup15S3lTDAC}}</ref> Examples include [[Toraja]]'s [[Tongkonan]], [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]]'s [[Rumah Gadang]] and [[Rangkiang]], Javanese style [[Pendopo]] pavilion with [[Joglo]] style roof, [[Dayak people|Dayak]]'s [[longhouse]]s, various [[Rumah Melayu|Malay houses]], [[Balinese architecture|Balinese houses]] and [[Balinese temple|temples]], and also different forms of [[rice barn]]s (''lumbung'').{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}
=== Music, dance and clothing ===
{{Main|Music of Indonesia|Dance in Indonesia|National costume of Indonesia}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Gamelan Player 1.JPG
| image2 = Angklung-arumba.jpg
| image3 = Tari Pendet.jpg
| image4 = Jaipongan Bunga Tanjung 02.jpg
| footer = Indonesian music and dance. '''Clockwise from top''': a [[gamelan]] player; [[Angklung]]; Sundanese [[Jaipongan]] Mojang Priangan dance; and Balinese [[Pendet]] dance.
}}
The music of Indonesia predates historical records. Various indigenous tribes incorporate chants and songs accompanied by musical instruments in their rituals. [[Angklung]], [[kacapi suling]], [[gong]], [[gamelan]], [[talempong]], [[kulintang]], and [[sasando]] are examples of traditional Indonesian instruments. The diverse world of Indonesian music genres results from the musical creativity of its people and subsequent cultural encounters with foreign influences. These include [[Qanbūs|gambus]] and [[qasida]] from the Middle East,<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Harnish|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Rasmussen|editor2-first=Anne|year=2011|title=Divine Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> [[keroncong]] from Portugal,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/15/%E2%80%98keroncong%E2%80%99-freedom-music-portuguese-descendants.html|title='Keroncong': Freedom music from Portuguese descendants|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2011-06-16|access-date=2015-09-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923061057/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/15/%E2%80%98keroncong%E2%80%99-freedom-music-portuguese-descendants.html|archive-date=2015-09-23}}</ref> and [[dangdut]]—one of Indonesia's most popular music genres—with notable Hindi influence as well as Malay orchestras.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Ariel Heryanto|last=Heryanto|first= Ariel|year=2008|title=Popular Culture in Indonesia: Fluid Identities in Post-Authoritarian Politics|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Today, the Indonesian music industry enjoys both nationwide and regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tirto.id/musik-di-tengah-konflik-indonesia-malaysia-cu8t|title=Music Amid the Indonesia-Malaysia Conflict|publisher=Tirto.id|language=id|last=Abdulsalam|first= Husein|date=2017-08-23|access-date=2020-12-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817090354/https://tirto.id/musik-di-tengah-konflik-indonesia-malaysia-cu8t|archive-date=2019-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fimela.com/news-entertainment/read/2982723/editor-says-ketika-musik-indonesia-berjaya-di-negeri-tetangga|title=Editor Says: Ketika Musik Indonesia Berjaya di Negeri Tetangga|publisher=Fimela|language=id|last=Zulmi|first= Nizar|date=2017-06-08|access-date=2020-12-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125054232/https://www.fimela.com/news-entertainment/read/2982723/editor-says-ketika-musik-indonesia-berjaya-di-negeri-tetangga|archive-date=2021-01-25}}</ref> due to the common culture and [[Comparison of Indonesian and Standard Malay|mutual intelligibility]] between [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Malay language|Malay]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtWdhQ7vc6kC&pg=PA71|title=The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar|last1=Adelaar|first1=K. Alexander|last2=Himmelmann|first2=Nikolaus|date=2013-03-07|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-75509-5|page=71}}</ref>
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Katoenen wikkelrok met geometrisch patroon TMnr 5713-2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Cotton [[wrap skirt|wikkelrok]] with [[batik]] geometric pattern]]
Indonesian dances have a diverse history, with more than 3,000 original dances. Scholars believe that they had their beginning in rituals and religious worship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indonesia-tourism.com/general/theatre.html|title=Indonesia Tourism : The Dance and Theater in the Archipelago|publisher=Indonesia Tourism|access-date=2010-11-24|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124083455/http://indonesia-tourism.com/general/theatre.html|archive-date=2010-11-24}}</ref> Examples include war dances, a dance of [[witch doctor]]s, and a dance to call for rain or any agricultural rituals such as [[Hudoq]]. Indonesian dances derive their influences from the archipelago's prehistoric and tribal, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic periods. Recently, modern dances and urban teen dances have gained popularity due to the influence of Western culture and those of Japan and South Korea to some extent. However, various traditional dances, including those of Java, Bali and Dayak, remain a living and dynamic tradition.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nhb.gov.sg/spm/-/media/spm/documents/indonesia-land-of-dance-and-dragon.pdf?la=en|title=Land of Dance & Dragon|publisher=National Heritage Board|author=Chua Mei Lin|date=January–March 2011|access-date=2020-12-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206060336/https://www.nhb.gov.sg/spm/-/media/spm/documents/indonesia-land-of-dance-and-dragon.pdf?la=en|archive-date=2020-12-06}}</ref>
Indonesia has various clothing styles due to its long and rich cultural history. The national costume originates from the country's indigenous culture and traditional textile traditions. The Javanese [[Batik]] and [[Kebaya]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/indepth/2011-11/16/c_131249994.htm|title=Cultural feast at ASEAN Fair|last=Ziyi|first= Xia|publisher=Xinhua|date=2011-11-16|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219173602/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/indepth/2011-11/16/c_131249994.htm|archive-date=2011-12-19}}</ref> are arguably Indonesia's most recognised national costumes, though they have [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] and [[Balinese people|Balinese]] origins as well.<ref name="ReferenceA">Jill Forshee, ''Culture and customs of Indonesia'', Greenwood Publishing Group: 2006: {{ISBN|0-313-33339-4}}. 237 pp.</ref> Each province has a representation of traditional attire and dress,<ref name="JForshee" /> such as [[Ulos]] of [[Batak]] from [[North Sumatra]]; [[Songket]] of [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] and [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]] from Sumatra; and [[Ikat]] of [[Sasak people|Sasak]] from [[Lombok]]. People wear national and regional costumes during traditional weddings, formal ceremonies, music performances, government and official occasions,<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and they vary from traditional to modern attire.
=== Theatre and cinema ===
{{Main|Theatre of Indonesia|Cinema of Indonesia}}
{{See further|List of highest-grossing films in Indonesia}}
[[File:Wayang Wong Bharata Pandawa.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pandava]] and [[Krishna]] in an act of the ''Wayang Wong'' performance|alt=]]
[[Wayang]], the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese [[shadow puppet]] theatre display several mythological legends such as [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamelan.org/balungan/back_issues/balungan(9-10)/2-Ruslaiana_Dancedrama.pdf|title=Traditions, Wayang Wong Priangan: Dance Drama of West Java|date=2004|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152545/http://www.gamelan.org/balungan/back_issues/balungan(9-10)/2-Ruslaiana_Dancedrama.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> Other forms of local drama include the Javanese [[Ludruk]] and [[Ketoprak]], the Sundanese [[Sandiwara]], Betawi [[Lenong]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast-Asian-arts/Shadow-puppet-theatre|title=Southeast Asian arts|last=José|first=Maceda|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2016-04-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420080922/https://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast-Asian-arts/Shadow-puppet-theatre|archive-date=2016-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tnol.asia/arts-culture/19661-ketoprak-javanese-folk-art-part-1-of-2.html|title=Ketoprak: Javanese Folk Art (Part 1 of 2)|last=Dewangga|first= Kusuma|publisher=Indonesia's Global Portal|date=2013-11-10|access-date=2013-11-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113041642/http://www.tnol.asia/arts-culture/19661-ketoprak-javanese-folk-art-part-1-of-2.html|archive-date=2013-11-13}}</ref> and various Balinese dance dramas. They incorporate humour and jest and often involve audiences in their performances.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Theatre-and-dance|title=Indonesia – Theatre and Dance|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2016-06-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629210212/https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Theatre-and-dance|archive-date=2016-06-29}}</ref> Some theatre traditions also include music, dancing and [[Pencak Silat|silat]] martial art, such as [[Randai]] from the [[Minangkabau people]] of West Sumatra. It is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Daughters Take Over? Female Performers in Randai Theatre|last=Pauka|first= Kirstin|journal=The Drama Review|volume=42|issue=1|pages=113–121|year=1998|doi=10.1162/105420498760308706|s2cid=57565023}}</ref><ref name="randai">{{cite web|url=http://globalshakespeares.mit.edu/glossary/randai/|title=Randai (Indonesian folk theater form, uses silat)|publisher=MIT Global Shakespeares}}</ref> and based on semi-historical Minangkabau legends and love story.<ref name="randai" /> Modern performing art also developed in Indonesia with its distinct style of drama. Notable theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as ''Teater Koma'' are famous as it often portrays social and political satire of Indonesian society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insideindonesia.org/review-indonesian-post-colonial-theatre|title=Review: Indonesian post-colonial theatre|last=Hatley|first= Barbara|publisher=Inside Indonesia|date=2017-11-13|access-date=2017-12-21|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221065709/http://www.insideindonesia.org/review-indonesian-post-colonial-theatre|archive-date=2017-12-21}}</ref>
[[File:Loetoeng Kasaroeng p67.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Advertisement for ''[[Loetoeng Kasaroeng]]'' (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies]]
The first film produced in the archipelago was ''[[Loetoeng Kasaroeng]]'',<ref name="Ctrip" /> a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp. The film industry expanded after independence, with six films made in 1949 rising to 58 in 1955. [[Usmar Ismail]], who made significant imprints in the 1950s and 1960s, is generally considered the pioneer of Indonesian films.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://time.com/5206668/google-doodle-usmar-ismail-indonesia/|title=Today Is the 97th Birthday of the Father of Indonesian Cinema. Here's What You Should Know About Usmar Ismail|publisher=TIME|date=2018-03-20|access-date=2019-11-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409155237/https://time.com/5206668/google-doodle-usmar-ismail-indonesia/|archive-date=2019-04-09}}</ref> The [[Guided Democracy in Indonesia|latter part of the Sukarno era]] saw the use of cinema for nationalistic, anti-Western purposes, and foreign films were subsequently banned, while the New Order utilised a censorship code that aimed to maintain social order.<ref name="Krishna Sen">{{cite book|last=Sen|first= Krishna|editor=Giecko, Anne Tereska|title=Contemporary Asian Cinema, Indonesia: Screening a Nation in the Post-New Order|publisher=Berg|year=2006|location=Oxford/New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryasia0000unse/page/96 96–107]|isbn=978-1-84520-237-8|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryasia0000unse/page/96}}</ref> Production of films peaked during the 1980s, although it declined significantly in the next decade.<ref name="Ctrip">{{cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/indonesia/articles/the-reformation-of-indonesian-film/|title=The Reformation of Indonesian Film|last=Sitorus|first= Rina|publisher=The Culture Trip|date=2017-11-30|access-date=2019-11-22|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122042803/https://theculturetrip.com/asia/indonesia/articles/the-reformation-of-indonesian-film/|archive-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> Notable films in this period include ''[[Satan's Slave (1980 film)|Pengabdi Setan]]'' (1980), ''[[Nagabonar]]'' (1987), ''[[Tjoet Nja' Dhien]]'' (1988), ''[[Catatan Si Boy]]'' (1989), and [[Warkop]]'s comedy films.
[[Independent film]]making was a rebirth of the film industry since 1998, when films started addressing previously banned topics, such as religion, race, and love.<ref name="Krishna Sen" /> Between 2000 and 2005, the number of films released each year steadily increased.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm|title=The Last 10 Years of Indonesia's Film Industry|last=Kristianto|first= JB|newspaper=Kompas|language=id|date=2005-07-02|access-date=2008-10-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113052204/http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm|archive-date=2008-01-13}}</ref> [[Riri Riza]] and [[Mira Lesmana]] were among the new generation of filmmakers who co-directed ''Kuldesak'' (1999), ''[[Petualangan Sherina]]'' (2000), ''[[Ada Apa dengan Cinta?]]'' (2002), and ''[[Laskar Pelangi]]'' (2008). In 2022, ''KKN di Desa Penari'' smashed box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://deadline.com/2022/12/indonesian-films-record-box-office-kkn-di-desa-penari-satans-slaves-2-disney-1235204953/|title=Indonesian Films Race Past Pre-Pandemic Admissions Record; 'KKN Di Desa Penari', 'Satan's Slaves 2', Disney Movies Top 2022 Box Office; Theatrical Market Set For Growth|last=Shackleton|first=Liz|magazine=Deadline|date=2022-12-22|access-date=2022-12-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225073509/https://deadline.com/2022/12/indonesian-films-record-box-office-kkn-di-desa-penari-satans-slaves-2-disney-1235204953/|archive-date=2022-12-25}}</ref> Indonesia has held annual film festivals and awards, including the [[Indonesian Film Festival]] (''Festival Film Indonesia'') held intermittently since 1955. It hands out the [[Citra Award]], the film industry's most prestigious award. From 1973 to 1992, the festival was held annually and then discontinued until its revival in 2004.
=== Mass media and literature ===
{{Main|Mass media in Indonesia|Indonesian literature}}
[[File:TV News Media in GBK Stadium, Jakarta, MetroTV.jpg|thumb|left|[[Metro TV (Indonesian TV network)|Metro TV]] at [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]], reporting the [[2010 AFF Championship]]]]
[[Media of Indonesia|Media]] freedom increased considerably after the fall of the New Order, during which the Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shannon L.|first= Smith|author2=Lloyd Grayson J.|title=Indonesia Today: Challenges of History|publisher=Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2001|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-0-7425-1761-5}}</ref> The television market includes several national commercial networks and provincial networks that compete with public [[TVRI]], which held a monopoly on TV broadcasting from 1962 to 1989. By the early 21st century, the improved communications system had brought television signals to every village, and people can choose from up to 11 channels.<ref name="frd2011">
{{citation-attribution|1={{cite book|url=https://lccn.loc.gov/2011038834|title=Indonesia: A country study|editor-first=William H.|editor-last=Frederick|editor2-first=Robert L.|editor2-last=Worden|publisher=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division|edition=6th|date=2011|isbn=978-0-8444-0790-6|access-date=2015-03-15}}}}</ref> Private radio stations carry news bulletins while foreign broadcasters supply programmes. The number of printed publications has increased significantly since 1998.<ref name="frd2011" />
Like other developing countries, Indonesia began developing [[Internet]] in the early 1990s. Its first commercial [[Internet service provider]], PT. Indo Internet began operation in Jakarta in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cleanitproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/2010-Radical-websites-Indonesia.pdf|title=The Internet in Indonesia: Development and Impact of Radical Websites|author=Jennifer Yang Hui|publisher=Routledge|date=2009-12-02|access-date=2017-12-12|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212193316/http://www.cleanitproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/2010-Radical-websites-Indonesia.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-12}}</ref> The country had 171 million Internet users in 2018, with a penetration rate that keeps increasing annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2019/05/18/indonesia-has-171-million-internet-users-study.html|title=Indonesia has 171 million internet users: Study|publisher=The Jakarta Post|date=2019-05-19|access-date=2019-07-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605043732/https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2019/05/18/indonesia-has-171-million-internet-users-study.html|archive-date=2019-06-05}}</ref> Most are between the ages of 15 and 19 and depend primarily on mobile phones for access, outnumbering laptops and computers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computerweekly.com/news/450288410/Indonesian-internet-users-turn-to-smartphones-to-go-online|title=Indonesian internet users turn to smartphones to go online|author=Ai Lei Tao|publisher=Computer Weekly|date=2016-04-25|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151259/http://www.computerweekly.com/news/450288410/Indonesian-internet-users-turn-to-smartphones-to-go-online|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref>
[[File:Pramudya Ananta Tur Kesusastraan Modern Indonesia p226.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], Indonesia's most famous novelist. Many considered him to be Southeast Asia's leading candidate for a [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/pramoedya|title=Pramoedya|publisher=Prospect|last=Templer|first= Robert|date=1999-06-20|access-date=2019-08-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829092831/https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/pramoedya|archive-date=2019-08-29}}</ref> ]]
The oldest evidence of writing in the Indonesian archipelago is a series of [[Sanskrit]] inscriptions dated to the 5th century. Many of Indonesia's peoples have firmly rooted [[oral tradition]]s, which help define and preserve their cultural identities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|title=Preserving intangible cultural heritage in Indonesia|last1=Czermak|first1=Karin|last2=Delanghe|first2=Philippe|last3=Weng|first3=Wei|publisher=SIL International|access-date=2007-07-09|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709194435/http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|archive-date=2007-07-09}}</ref> In written poetry and prose, several traditional forms dominate, mainly [[syair]], [[pantun]], [[gurindam]], [[List of Hikayat|hikayat]] and [[Javanese historical texts|babad]]. Examples of these forms include ''[[Syair Abdul Muluk]]'', ''[[Hikayat Hang Tuah]]'', ''[[Malay Annals|Sulalatus Salatin]]'', and ''[[Babad Tanah Jawi]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nursisto|title=Ikhtisar Kesusastraan Indonesia: dari pantun, bidal, gurindam hingga puisi kontemporer : dari dongeng, hikayat, roman hingga cerita pendek dan novel|publisher=Adicita|date=2000|isbn=978-979-9246-28-8}}{{page needed|date=December 2016}}</ref>
Early modern Indonesian literature originates in the Sumatran tradition.<ref>{{cite book|last=Joy Freidus|first= Alberta|year=1977|title=Sumatran Contributions to the Development of Indonesian Literature, 1920–1942|publisher=Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Seong Chee Tham|title=Essays on Literature and Society in Southeast Asia: Political and Sociological Perspectives|page=99|date=1981|location=Kent Ridge, Singapore|publisher=Singapore University Press|isbn=978-9971-69-036-6|url={{Google books|id=h6SOvP6FLskC|page=99|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> Literature and poetry flourished during the decades leading up to and after independence. [[Balai Pustaka]], the government bureau for popular literature, was instituted in 1917 to promote the development of indigenous literature. Many scholars consider the 1950s and 1960s to be the Golden Age of Indonesian Literature.<ref name="literary">{{cite web|url=https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor/|title=An Introduction to the Literature of Indonesia, 2015 Frankfurt Book Fair's Guest of Honor|publisher=Jakarta Globe|last=Boediman|first= Manneke|date=2015-10-14|access-date=2020-06-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626092816/https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor/|archive-date=2020-06-26}}</ref> The style and characteristics of modern Indonesian literature vary according to the dynamics of the country's political and social landscape,<ref name="literary" /> most notably the war of independence in the second half of the 1940s and the anti-communist mass killings in the mid-1960s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/may/28/why-isnt-more-indonesia-literature-translated-english|title='17,000 islands of imagination': discovering Indonesian literature|work=The Guardian|last=Doughty|first= Louis|date=2016-05-28|access-date=2020-06-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529122114/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/may/28/why-isnt-more-indonesia-literature-translated-english|archive-date=2016-05-29}}</ref> Notable literary figures of the modern era include [[Multatuli]], [[Chairil Anwar]], [[Mohammad Yamin]], [[Merari Siregar]], [[Marah Roesli]], [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], and [[Ayu Utami]].
=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Indonesian cuisine}}
[[File:Nasi ramas rendang.JPG|thumb|left|''[[Nasi Padang]]'' with ''[[rendang]]'', ''[[gulai]]'' and vegetables|alt=]]
Indonesian cuisine is one of the world's most diverse, vibrant, and colourful, full of intense flavour.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2008/07/01/about-indonesian-food|title=About Indonesian food|publisher=Special Broadcasting Service|date=2015-05-13|access-date=2015-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521014618/https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2008/07/01/about-indonesian-food|archive-date=2015-05-21|url-status=live}}</ref> Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.<ref>{{cite book|last=Witton|first= Patrick|title=World Food: Indonesia|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|year=2002|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74059-009-9}}</ref> Rice is the leading [[staple food]] and is served with [[side dish]]es of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chilli), [[coconut milk]], fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.<ref>Compared to the infused flavors of [[Vietnamese food|Vietnamese]] and [[Thai food]], flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial.{{cite book|last=Brissendon|first= Rosemary|title=South East Asian Food|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|year=2003|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74066-013-6}}</ref>
Some popular dishes such as ''[[nasi goreng]]'', ''[[gado-gado]]'', ''[[Satay|sate]]'', and ''[[Soto (food)|soto]]'' are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose ''[[tumpeng]]'' as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/10/celebratory-rice-cone-dish-represent-archipelago.html|title=Celebratory rice cone dish to represent the archipelago|last=Natahadibrata|first= Nadya|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2014-02-10|access-date=2014-07-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714213059/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/10/celebratory-rice-cone-dish-represent-archipelago.html|archive-date=2014-07-14}}</ref> Other popular dishes include ''[[rendang]]'', one of the many [[Padang cuisine]]s along with ''[[dendeng]]'' and ''[[gulai]]''. Another fermented food is ''[[oncom]]'', similar in some ways to ''[[tempeh]]'' but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in [[West Java]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sastraatmadja|first1=D. D.|display-authors=etal|year=2002|title=Production of High-Quality Oncom, a Traditional Indonesian Fermented Food, by the Inoculation with Selected Mold Strains in the Form of Pure Culture and Solid Inoculum|journal=Journal of the Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University|volume=70|hdl=115/13163}}</ref>
{{-}}
=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Indonesia|Indonesian martial arts}}
[[File:Pencak Silat Betawi 2.jpg|thumb|upright|A demonstration of ''[[Pencak Silat]]'', a form of martial arts]][[Badminton]] and [[association football|football]] are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the [[Thomas Cup|Thomas]] and [[Uber Cup]], the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], it is the sport that contributes the most to [[Indonesia at the Olympics|Indonesia's Olympic medal tally]]. [[Liga 1 (Indonesia)|Liga 1]] is the country's premier football club league. On the international stage, [[Indonesia national football team|Indonesia]] was the first Asian team to participate in the [[FIFA World Cup]] in [[1938 FIFA World Cup|1938]] as the Dutch East Indies.<ref>Alex Monnig, World Cup, 2013</ref> On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the [[1958 Asian Games]] as well as two gold medals at the [[1987 Southeast Asian Games|1987]] and [[1991 Southeast Asian Games]] (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the [[AFC Asian Cup]] was in [[1996 AFC Asian Cup|1996]] and successfully qualified for a total of five tournaments, although they never make the knockout phase.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/china-cant-keep-up-with-peers-20070720-gdqnvf.html|title=China can't keep up with peers|publisher=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=2007-07-20|access-date=2020-12-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206035102/https://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/china-cant-keep-up-with-peers-20070720-gdqnvf.html|archive-date=2020-12-06}}</ref>
Other popular sports include [[boxing]] and [[basketball]], which has a long history in Indonesia and was part of the first [[National Sports Week (Indonesia)|National Games]] (''Pekan Olahraga Nasional'', PON) in 1948.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nblindonesia.com/v1/index.php?page=abouten|title=History of Basketball in Indonesia|publisher=National Basketball League Indonesia|access-date=2016-09-08|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908220708/http://www.nblindonesia.com/v1/index.php?page=abouten|archive-date=2016-09-08}}</ref> ''[[Sepak takraw]]'' and ''[[karapan sapi]]'' (bull racing) in [[Madura Island|Madura]] are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as ''caci'' in [[Flores]] and ''[[pasola]]'' in [[Sumba]]. ''[[Pencak Silat]]'' is an Indonesian martial art and, in 1987, became one of the sporting events in the SEA Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia is one of the top sports powerhouses by topping the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://en.tempo.co/read/907202/lack-of-gold|title=Lack of Gold|publisher=Tempo|date=2017-09-08|access-date=2020-08-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816043954/https://en.tempo.co/read/907202/lack-of-gold|archive-date=2020-08-16}}</ref> most recently in [[2011 Southeast Asian Games|2011]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://en.antaranews.com/news/77844/ffinal-medal-tally-sea-games-2011|title=Final medal tally SEA Games 2011|newspaper=ANTARA News|date=2011-11-22|access-date=2020-08-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823054617/https://en.antaranews.com/news/77844/ffinal-medal-tally-sea-games-2011|archive-date=2018-08-23}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{portal|Indonesia|Asia|Islands}}
* [[List of Indonesia-related topics]]
* [[Index of Indonesia-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Indonesia]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZtDIhWzFeUC |title=Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society |editor-last=Ammon |editor-first=Ulrich |editor-last2=Dittmar |editor-first2=Norbert |editor-last3=Mattheier |editor-first3=Klaus J. |editor-last4=Trudgill |editor-first4=Peter |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2006 |edition=2nd, revised and extended |volume=3 |isbn=9783110184181 |access-date=June 29, 2010}}
* {{Citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC |title=Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education |access-date=May 19, 2010 |first1=Colin |last1=Baker |first2=Sylvia |last2=Prys Jones |publisher=Multilingual Matters Ltd. |year=1998 |isbn = 9781853593628}}
* {{cite book |last=Bevins |first=Vincent|author-link=Vincent Bevins|title= [[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]] |date=2020 |publisher= [[PublicAffairs]] |isbn= 978-1541742406}}
* {{Citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LT6E6YdAh-MC |title=The Phonology of Dutch. |first=Geert |last=Booij |work=Oxford Linguistics |year=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-823869-X |access-date=May 24, 2010}}
* {{cite book|last=Cribb|first=Robert|title=Historical atlas of Indonesia|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2013}}
* {{cite book|last=Crouch|first=Harold|title=The army and politics in Indonesia|publisher=[[Cornell University Press|Cornell UP]]|year=2019}}
* {{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George SW |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850}}
* {{cite book|last=Effendy|first=Bahtiar|title=Islam and the State in Indonesia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2003}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Emmers|first=Ralf|date=2005|title=Regional Hegemonies and the Exercise of Power in Southeast Asia: A Study of Indonesia and Vietnam|journal=[[Asian Survey]]|publisher=University of California Press|volume=45|issue=4|pages=645–665|doi=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645|jstor=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fossati|first1=Diego|first2=Yew-Foong|last2=Hui|title=The Indonesia national survey project: Economy, society and politics|publisher=ISEAS Publishing|year=2017}}
* {{cite book|surname=Friend|given=T.|title=Indonesian Destinies|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=0-674-01137-6|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hadiz|first1=Vedi R.|first2=Richard|last2=Robison|title=The political economy of oligarchy and the reorganization of power in Indonesia|chapter=Beyond Oligarchy|publisher=[[Cornell University Press|Cornell UP]]|year=2014|pages=35–56|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519011543/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=2021-05-19|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Indonesia|first=Statistics|title=Statistical yearbook of Indonesia 2009|publisher=Statistics Indonesia, 2019|url=https://seadelt.net/Asset/Source/Document_ID-184_No-01.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Kitley|first=Philip|title=Television, nation, and culture in Indonesia|publisher=[[Ohio University Press]]|year=2014}}
* {{cite book|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=2018|title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-57469-4}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mietzner|first1=Marcus|first2=Burhanuddin|last2=Muhtadi|title=Explaining the 2016 Islamist mobilisation in Indonesia: Religious intolerance, militant groups and the politics of accommodation|journal=Asian Studies Review|issue=42|volume=3|year=2018|pages=479–497|doi=10.1080/10357823.2018.1473335|s2cid=150302264|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326286879}}
* {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|authorlink=Merle Ricklefs|year=1991|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300|edition=2nd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press |isbn=0-333-57690-X}}
* {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|author-link=Merle Ricklefs|year=2001|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200|edition=3rd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4480-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GrWCmZoEBMC}}
* {{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Geoffrey B.|date=2018|title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4008-8886-3}}
* {{cite book|surname=Schwarz|given=A.|year=1994|title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=1-86373-635-2|url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw}}
* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |isbn=978-0-300-09709-2}}
* {{cite book|surname=Vickers|given=Adrian|title=A History of Modern Indonesia|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=0-521-54262-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2=R. E.|last3=Suraya|first3=A. A.|year=1996|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Hong Kong}}
* Winters, Jeffrey A. "Oligarchy and democracy in Indonesia." in ''Beyond Oligarchy'' (Cornell UP, 2014) pp. 11–34. [https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023093720/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1|date=2020-10-23}}
* {{cite book|last=Witton|first=Patrick|year=2003|title=Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74059-154-6}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Indonesia|d=Q252}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ Indonesia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-14921238 Indonesia] from [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ID Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia] from [[International Futures]]
===Government===
* [http://www.setneg.go.id/ Minister of The State Secretary] {{in lang|id}}
* [http://www.bps.go.id/ Statistics Indonesia]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/ID.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012020339/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/ID.html|date=2014-10-12}}
===General===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090426085755/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/indonesia.htm Indonesia] ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{curlie|Regional/Asia/Indonesia}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286480/Indonesia Indonesia] ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* {{Wikiatlas|Indonesia}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|304751}}
* [http://www.indonesia.travel/ Official Site of Indonesian Tourism]
{{Indonesia topics}}
{{Navboxes
|title=Articles relating to Indonesia
|list=
{{Government of Indonesia}}
{{Provinces of Indonesia}}
{{Countries and territories of Oceania}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)}}
{{G20}}
{{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}}
{{Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}}
{{Non-Aligned Movement}}
{{Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)}}}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Indonesia| ]]<!---Bicontinental--->
[[Category:Countries in Asia]]
[[Category:Member states of ASEAN]]
[[Category:Muslim Majority Nations]]
[[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Island countries]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Countries in Melanesia]]
[[Category:Developing 8 Countries member states]]
[[Category:E7 nations]]
[[Category:G15 nations]]
[[Category:G20 nations]]
[[Category:Former OPEC member states]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Newly industrializing countries]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian countries]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1945]]
[[Category:Transcontinental countries]]
[[Category:Malay-speaking countries and territories]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|Country in Southeast Asia and Oceania}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Coord|5|S|120|E|type:country_region:ID|display=title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Indonesia
| common_name = Indonesia
| native_name = {{native name|id|Republik Indonesia}}
| image_flag = Flag of Indonesia.svg
| image_coat = National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg
| symbol_type = [[National emblem of Indonesia|National emblem <br />(Coat of arms)]]
| national_motto = <br>{{native phrase|kaw|[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]|paren=omit}} ([[Old Javanese]])<br>"Unity in Diversity"
| other_symbol = {{lang|id|[[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]]}}<br />({{lit|Five principles}})
| other_symbol_type = National ideology:
| national_anthem = {{lang|id|[[Indonesia Raya]]}}<br />"Great Indonesia"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Indonesiaraya.ogg]]</div>
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Indonesia ASEAN.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of ASEAN|default=1}}
| capital = [[Jakarta]]
| largest_city = [[Jakarta]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|6|10|S|106|49|E|type:city_region:ID}}
| languages_type = Official language
| languages = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]<!--Note: Not just the official language, but also the national language (bahasa pemersatu)-->
| languages2_type = Regional languages
| languages2 = Over [[Languages of Indonesia|700 languages]]<ref name="ethnologue"/>
| ethnic_groups = Over [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|1,300 ethnic groups]]<ref name="BPS">{{cite web|url=http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|title=Nationality, Ethnicity, Religion, and Languages of Indonesians|language=id|last1=Na'im|first1=Akhsan|last2=Syaputra|first2=Hendry|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|date=2010|access-date=2015-09-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194534/http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|archive-date=2015-09-23}}</ref>
| religion_year = 2018
| religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;|86.7% [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]]|10.7% [[Christianity in Indonesia|Christianity]]|1.7% [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hinduism]]|0.8% [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]]| 0.1% [[Aliran Kepercayaan|Folk]], [[Confucianism in Indonesia|Confucianism]], <br>and [[Religion in Indonesia|other]]}}
| religion_ref = <ref name="RELIGION">{{cite web|url=https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|title=Statistik Umat Menurut Agama di Indonesia|publisher=[[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Religious Affairs]]|date=2018-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903221250/https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|archive-date=2020-09-03|access-date=2020-09-24|language=id}}</ref>
| demonym = [[Indonesians|Indonesian]]
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of Indonesia|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Joko Widodo]]
| leader_title2 = {{nowrap|[[Vice President of Indonesia|Vice President]]}}
| leader_name2 = [[Ma'ruf Amin]]
| leader_title3 = {{nowrap|[[List of Speakers of the People's Representative Council|House Speaker]]}}
| leader_name3 = [[Puan Maharani]]
| leader_title4 = {{nowrap|[[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Indonesia|Chief Justice]]}}
| leader_name4 = [[Muhammad Syarifuddin]]
| legislature = [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (MPR)
| upper_house = [[Regional Representative Council]] (DPD)
| lower_house = [[People's Representative Council]] (DPR)
| sovereignty_type = Independence
| sovereignty_note = from the [[Dutch Empire|Netherlands]]<!-- Based on consensus, please discuss on the Talk Page before changing Netherlands to Japan, or adding both -->
| established_event1 = [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|Proclaimed]]
| established_date1 = 17 August 1945
| established_event2 = [[Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference|Recognition]]
| established_date2 = 27 December 1949
| area_km2 = 1,904,569<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|title=UN Statistics|publisher=United Nations|date=2005|access-date=2007-10-31|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031023924/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|archive-date=2007-10-31}}</ref>
| area_label = [[Land area|Land]]
| area_rank = 14th
| area_sq_mi = 735,358 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| percent_water =
| area_label2 = [[Water area|Water (%)]]
| area_data2 = 4.85
| population_estimate = {{increaseNeutral}} 277,749,853<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/page/read/7/data-kependudukan|publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (Indonesia)]]|title=Indonesian Population 2022|access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref>
| population_census = 270,203,917<ref name="2020census" />
| population_estimate_year = Q4 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 4th
| population_census_year = 2020
| population_density_km2 = 143
| population_density_sq_mi = 371
| population_density_rank = 90th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} {{currency|4.398 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}}<ref name="IMF">{{cite web|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=536,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,&sy=2020&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|publisher=International Monetary Fund|access-date=2023-04-12}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 7th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} {{currency|15,855|USD|passthrough=no}}<ref name="IMF" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 98th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} {{currency|1.392 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}}<ref name="IMF" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank = 16th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} {{currency|5,016|USD|passthrough=no}}<ref name="IMF" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 112th
| Gini = 37.9
| Gini_year = 2021
| Gini_change = increase <!--/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Indonesia|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=ID|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=2021-04-15}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.705
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=2022-09-08|access-date=2022-09-08}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 114th
| currency = [[Indonesian rupiah]] (Rp)
| currency_code = IDR
| time_zone = [[Time in Indonesia|various]]
| utc_offset = +7 to +9
| date_format = DD/MM/YYYY
| drives_on = left <!--Note that this refers to the side of the road used, not the seating of the driver-->
| calling_code = [[+62]]
| cctld = [[.id]]
}}
'''Indonesia''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|ɪ|n|d|ə|ˈ|n|iː|z|i|ə|,_|-|ʒ|ə}} {{Respell|IN|də|NEE|zee|ə|,_|-|zhə}} {{IPAc-en|US|audio=En-us-Indonesia.ogg|ˌ|ɪ|n|d|ə|ˈ|n|iː|ʒ|ə|,_|-|ʃ|ə}} {{Respell|IN|də|NEE|zhə|,_|-|shə}};<ref>{{Cite web|title=INDONESIA {{!}} Meaning & Definition for UK English {{!}} Lexico.com|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/indonesia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228122651/https://www.lexico.com/definition/indonesia|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-28|access-date=2022-05-07|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Indonesia|access-date=2022-05-07}}</ref> {{IPA-id|ɪndoˈnesia}}}} officially the '''Republic of Indonesia''',{{efn|name=fn1|{{lang|id|Republik Indonesia|links=yes}} ({{IPA-id|reˈpublik ɪndoˈnesia||3=Id-Indonesia.ogg}}) is the most-used official name, though the name [[Names of Indonesia|Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia]] ({{lang|id|Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia}}, NKRI) also appears in some official documents.}} is a country in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]] between the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] oceans. It consists of over [[List of islands of Indonesia|17,000 islands]], including [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Sulawesi]], and parts of [[Borneo]] and [[New Guinea]]. Indonesia is the world's largest [[archipelagic state]] and the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|14th-largest country by area]], at {{convert|1,904,569|km2|sqmi|lk=out|abbr=off}}. With around 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by population|fourth-most populous country]] and the most populous [[Islam by country|Muslim-majority country]]. Java, the world's [[List of islands by population|most populous island]], is home to more than half of the country's population.
As the world's third largest [[democracy]], Indonesia is a [[President of Indonesia|presidential]] [[republic]] with an elected [[People's Consultative Assembly|legislature]]. It has [[Provinces of Indonesia|38 provinces]], of which nine have [[Autonomous administrative division|special status]]. The country's capital, [[Jakarta]], is the world's [[List of largest cities|second-most populous urban area]]. Indonesia shares [[Template:Borders of Indonesia|land borders]] with [[Papua New Guinea]], [[East Timor]], and the [[East Malaysia|eastern part]] of [[Malaysia]], as well as [[maritime border]]s with [[Singapore]], [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]], the [[Philippines]], [[Australia]], [[Palau]], and [[India]]. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's [[Megadiverse countries|highest level of biodiversity]].
The [[Nusantara (archipelago)|Indonesian archipelago]] has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when the [[Srivijaya|Srivijaya Kingdom]] formed trade links with China. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Under Indian influence, [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhist]] kingdoms flourished from the early centuries CE. Muslim traders later brought [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]], and [[Europe]]an powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] during the [[Age of Discovery]]. Following three and a half centuries of [[Dutch East Indies#History|Dutch colonialism]], Indonesia secured [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|its independence]] after [[World War II]]. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a [[Post-Suharto era in Indonesia|democratisation]] process, and periods of rapid economic change.
Indonesia consists of thousands of [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|distinct native ethnic]] and hundreds of [[Languages of Indonesia|linguistic]] groups, with [[Javanese people|Javanese]] being the largest. A shared identity has developed with the motto ''"[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]"'' ("Unity in Diversity" ''literally'', "many, yet one"), defined by a [[Indonesian language|national language]], cultural diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. The [[economy of Indonesia]] is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|16th-largest by nominal GDP]] and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|7th-largest by PPP]]. It is a [[regional power]] and is considered a [[middle power]] in global affairs. The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the [[United Nations]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[G20]], and a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], [[ASEAN|Association of Southeast Asian Nations]], [[East Asia Summit]], [[D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation|D-8]] and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]].
== Etymology ==
{{further|Names of Indonesia}}
The name ''Indonesia'' derives from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words {{lang|grc-Latn|[[wikt:Indo-|Indos]]}} ({{lang|grc|Ἰνδός}}) and {{lang|grc-Latn|[[wikt:νῆσος|nesos]]}} ({{lang|grc|νῆσος}}), meaning "Indian islands".<ref name="EcoSeas1">{{cite book|last1=Tomascik|first1=Tomas|last2=Mah|first2=Anmarie Janice|last3=Nontji|first3=Anugerah|last4=Moosa|first4=Mohammad Kasim|title=The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-078-7}}</ref> The name dates back to the [[19th century]], far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.<ref name="indoety">{{cite web|url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm|title=The origin of Indonesia's name|last=Anshory|first=Irfan|publisher=Pikiran Rakyat|language=id|date=2004-08-16|access-date=2006-12-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm|archive-date=2006-12-15}}</ref> In 1850, [[George Windsor Earl]], an English [[ethnology|ethnologist]], proposed the terms ''Indunesians''—and, his preference, ''Malayunesians''—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or [[Malay Archipelago]]".{{sfn|Earl|1850|p=119}} In the same publication, one of his students, [[James Richardson Logan]], used ''Indonesia'' as a synonym for ''Indian Archipelago''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Logan|first=James Richardson|title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders|journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia|year=1850|volume=4|pages=252–347}}</ref>{{sfn|Earl|1850|pp=254, 277–278}} Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use ''Indonesia''. They preferred ''Malay Archipelago'' ({{lang-nl|Maleische Archipel}}); the ''[[Dutch East Indies|Netherlands East Indies]]'' ({{lang|nl|Nederlandsch Oost Indië}}), popularly {{lang|nl|Indië}}; ''the East'' ({{lang|nl|de Oost}}); and {{lang|nl|Insulinde}}.<ref name="Kroef">{{cite journal|title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|first=Justus M|last=van der Kroef|volume=71|issue=3|pages=166–171|year=1951|doi=10.2307/595186|jstor=595186}}</ref>
After 1900, ''Indonesia'' became more common in academic circles outside the [[Netherlands]], and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.<ref name="Kroef" /> [[Adolf Bastian]] of the University of Berlin popularized the name through his book {{lang|de|Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894|italic=yes}}. The first native scholar to use the name was [[Ki Hajar Dewantara]] when in 1913, he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, {{lang|nl|Indonesisch Pers-bureau}}.<ref name="indoety" />
== History ==
{{Main|History of Indonesia}}
=== Early history ===
[[File:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|right|A [[Borobudur ship]] carved on [[Borobudur]] temple, c. 800 CE. Outrigger boats from the archipelago may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.<ref>{{cite book|title=A short history of Indonesia: the unlikely nation?|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryindo00brow|url-access=limited|last=Brown|first= Colin|year=2003|publisher=Allen & Unwin|isbn=978-1-86508-838-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryindo00brow/page/n31 13]}}</ref>]]
Fossilised remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'', popularly known as the "[[Java Man]]", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pope|first= G.G.|title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=17|pages=43–77|year=1988|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355}} cited in {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1= T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2= R.E.|last3=Suraya|first3= A.A.|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|pages=309–412}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pope|first= G.G.|title=Evidence on the age of the Asian Hominidae|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=80|issue=16|pages=4988–4992|year=1983|pmid=6410399|doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988|pmc=384173|bibcode=1983PNAS...80.4988P|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=de Vos|first1= J.P.|last2=Sondaar|first2= P.Y.|title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia|journal=Science|volume=266|issue=16|pages=4988–4992|year=1994|doi=10.1126/science.7992059|bibcode=1994Sci...266.1726D|doi-access=free}}</ref> ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' reached the region around 43,000 BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/human-migration.html|title=The Great Human Migration|last=Gugliotta|first= Guy|publisher=Smithsonian Maganize|date=July 2008|access-date=2011-08-21}}</ref> [[Austronesian peoples]], who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now [[Taiwan]]. They arrived in the archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native [[Melanesians]] to the far eastern regions as they spread east.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=5–7}} Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of [[Paddy field|wet-field rice cultivation]] as early as the eighth century BCE{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=8–9}} allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries BCE.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=15–18}} Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=3, 9–11, 13–15, 18–20, 22–23}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|pp=18–20, 60, 133–134}}
From the seventh century CE, the [[Srivijaya]] naval kingdom flourished due to trade and the influences of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]].{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=22–26}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=3}} At that time, ancient Indonesian sailors had made long voyages to [[Madagascar]] and [[East Africa]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|volume=279|issue=1739|pages=2761–2768|author1=Murray P. Cox|author2=Michael G. Nelson|author3=Meryanne K. Tumonggor|author4=François-X. Ricaut|author5=Herawati Sudoyo|date=2012-03-21|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.0012|pmid=22438500|pmc=3367776}}</ref> Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist [[Sailendra]] and Hindu [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's [[Borobudur]] and Mataram's [[Prambanan]]. The Hindu [[Majapahit]] kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under [[Gajah Mada]], its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia. This period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The next great empire|last=Lewis|first=Peter|journal=Futures|volume=14|issue=1|year=1982|pages=47–61|doi=10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4}}</ref>
[[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|The earliest evidence of Islamized populations]] in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern [[Sumatra]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=3–14}} Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in [[Java]] and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=12–14}}
=== Colonial era ===
{{Main|Dutch East Indies}}
[[File:Nicolaas Pieneman - The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to General De Kock.jpg|thumb|left|The submission of [[Diponegoro|Prince Diponegoro]] to [[Hendrik Merkus de Kock|General De Kock]] at the end of the [[Java War]] in 1830|alt=]]
The first Europeans arrived in the archipelago in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by [[Francisco Serrão]], [[Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago|sought to monopolise]] the sources of [[nutmeg]], [[cloves]], and [[Piper cubeba|cubeb pepper]] in the [[Maluku Islands]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=22–24}} Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the Dutch established the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) and became the dominant European power for almost 200 years. The VOC was dissolved in 1799 following bankruptcy, and the [[Batavian Republic|Netherlands]] established the [[Dutch East Indies]] as a nationalised colony.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=24}}
For most of the [[History of Indonesia#Colonial era|colonial period]], Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous. Dutch forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as [[Prince Diponegoro]] in central Java, [[Imam Bonjol]] in central Sumatra, [[Pattimura]] in [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]], and the bloody [[Aceh War|30-year war in Aceh]] weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.{{sfn|Schwarz|1994|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=142}}{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo/page/21 21]}} Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo/page/21 21]}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=61–147}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/209 209–278]}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri/page/n27 10–14]}}
The [[Dutch East Indies campaign|Japanese invasion]] and [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|subsequent occupation]] during World War II ended Dutch rule{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves|journal=Eighteenth-Century Studies|volume=31|issue=3|author1=Gert Oostindie|author2=Bert Paasman|pages=349–355|year=1998|doi=10.1353/ecs.1998.0021|url=https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/488440/16390.pdf|hdl=20.500.11755/c467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092|s2cid=161921454|hdl-access=free|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922033534/https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/488440/16390.pdf|archive-date=2017-09-22|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+id0029%29|title=Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle for Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45|publisher=Library of Congress|date=November 1992|access-date=2013-02-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821095117/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+id0029%29|archive-date=2013-08-21}}</ref> and encouraged the previously suppressed independence movement.<ref>Robert Elson, ''The idea of Indonesia: A history'' (2008) pp 1–12</ref> Two days after the [[surrender of Japan]] in August 1945, [[Sukarno]] and [[Mohammad Hatta]], influential nationalist leaders, [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|proclaimed Indonesian independence]] and were appointed president and vice-president, respectively.{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/325 325]}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Indonesia|author=H. J. Van Mook|author-link=Hubertus Johannes van Mook|journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs|date=1949|volume=25|issue=3|pages=274–285|doi=10.2307/3016666|jstor=3016666}}</ref><ref name=Bidien1945>{{cite journal|title=Independence the Issue|journal=Far Eastern Survey|author=Charles Bidien|volume=14|issue=24|pages=345–348|date=1945-12-05|doi=10.2307/3023219|jstor=3023219}}</ref>{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/325 325]}}
The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, and [[Indonesian National Revolution|a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle]] ended in December 1949 when the Dutch [[Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference|formally recognised Indonesian independence]] in the face of international pressure.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=35}}<ref name=Bidien1945/> Despite extraordinary political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence.{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=[https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo/page/23 21, 23]}}{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=211–213}}
=== Post-World War II ===
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 260
| image1 = Presiden Sukarno.jpg
| image2 = Mohammad Hatta 1950.jpg
| footer = Sukarno (''left'') and Hatta (''right''), Indonesia's founding fathers and the first [[President of Indonesia|President]] and [[Vice President of Indonesia|Vice President]] respectively
}}
As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of [[Indonesian National Armed Forces|the military]], political Islam, and the increasingly powerful [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI).{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=237–280}} Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in [[30 September Movement|an attempted coup]] in 1965. The army, led by Major General [[Suharto]], countered by instigating a [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|violent anti-communist purge]] that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in [[Internment|concentration camps]].{{sfn|Melvin|2018|p=1}}{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=3}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966|author=Robert Cribb|journal=Asian Survey|volume=42|issue=4|date=2002|pages=550–563|doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550|s2cid=145646994|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/aa9b073fd95ecbc825767210f1afb1a724171b8b}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41651047|title=Indonesia massacres: Declassified US files shed new light|publisher=BBC|date=2017-10-17|access-date=2018-09-19|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180531212048/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41651047|archive-date=2018-05-31}}</ref>{{sfn|Bevins|2020|pp=168, 185}} The PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=107–109}}<ref>{{cite video|people=Chris Hilton (writer and director)|title=Shadowplay|medium=Television documentary|publisher=Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions|year=2001}}</ref>{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=280–283, 284, 287–290}} Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a [[Transition to the New Order|drawn-out power play with Sukarno]], Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His [[New Order (Indonesia)|"New Order"]] administration,<ref>{{cite journal|title=General Suharto's New Order|author=John D. Legge|journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs|volume=44|issue=1|year=1968|pages=40–47|jstor=2613527|doi=10.2307/2613527}}</ref> supported by the United States,{{sfn|Melvin|2018|pp=9-10}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=163}}<ref>David Slater, ''Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North–South Relations'', London: Blackwell, p. 70</ref> encouraged [[foreign direct investment]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Farid|first=Hilmar|date=2005|title=Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66|journal=Inter-Asia Cultural Studies|volume=6|issue=1|pages=3–16|doi=10.1080/1462394042000326879|s2cid=145130614}}</ref>{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=206}}{{sfn|Bevins|2020|pp=167–168}} which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Delhaise|first= Philippe F.|title=Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems|publisher=Willey|year=1998|page=123|isbn=978-0-471-83450-2}}</ref> It brought out [[May 1998 riots of Indonesia#Background|popular discontent]] with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}{{sfn|Schwarz|1994|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Indonesia: from showcase to basket case|author=Jonathan Pincus|author2=Rizal Ramli|journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics|volume=22|issue=6|pages=723–734|date=1998|doi=10.1093/cje/22.6.723}}</ref> In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|1975 invasion by Indonesia]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Burr|first=W.|title=East Timor Revisited, Ford, Kissinger, and the Indonesian Invasion, 1975–76|work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62|publisher=[[National Security Archive]], [[The George Washington University]]|location=Washington, DC|date=2001-12-06|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191005181014/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/|archive-date=2019-10-05|access-date=2006-09-17}}</ref> and a [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|25-year occupation]] marked by international condemnation of [[East Timor genocide|human rights abuses]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/situation-human-rights-east-timor|title=Situation of human rights in East Timor|publisher=Relief Web|date=1999-12-10|access-date=2019-11-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120053730/https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/situation-human-rights-east-timor|archive-date=2019-11-20}}</ref>
Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting the country's [[2004 Indonesian presidential election|first direct presidential election in 2004]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf|title=The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report|publisher=The Carter Center|access-date=2007-06-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614025148/http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf|archive-date=2007-06-14}}</ref> Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of [[Terrorism in Indonesia|terrorism]] remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly in the last 15 years. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.<ref name="RIP">{{cite book|last=Harsono|first= Andreas|title=Race, Islam and Power: Ethnic and Religious Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia|publisher=Monash University Publishing|date=May 2019|isbn=978-1-925835-09-0}}</ref> A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.<ref name="AcehPeace">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/aug/15/indonesia.tsunami20041|title=Indonesia signs Aceh peace deal|work=The Guardian|date=2005-08-15|access-date=2019-11-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116150100/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/aug/15/indonesia.tsunami20041|archive-date=2018-11-16}}</ref>
== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Indonesia|List of islands of Indonesia}}
[[File:Bromo-Semeru-Batok-Widodaren.jpg|thumb|[[Semeru|Mount Semeru]] and [[Mount Bromo]] in [[East Java]]. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.]]
Indonesia lies between latitudes [[11th parallel south|11°S]] and [[6th parallel north|6°N]] and longitudes [[95th meridian east|95°E]] and [[141st meridian east|141°E]]. A [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]] spanning [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]], it is the world's largest [[archipelagic state]], extending {{convert|5120|km|0}} from east to west and {{convert|1760|km|0}} from north to south.{{CN|date=March 2023}} The country's [[Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs (Indonesia)|Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs]] says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at the UN)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/08/21/16000-indonesian-islands-registered-at-un.html|title=16,000 Indonesian islands registered at UN|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2017-08-21|access-date=2018-12-03|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202043/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/08/21/16000-indonesian-islands-registered-at-un.html|archive-date=2018-11-30}}</ref> scattered over both sides of the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/|title=The World Factbook: Indonesia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|date=2018-10-29|access-date=2018-11-11}}</ref> The largest are [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Borneo]] (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), [[Sulawesi]], and [[New Guinea]] (shared with Papua New Guinea).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/basic-facts/|title=Facts & Figures|publisher=Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, Washington, D.C.|access-date=2021-03-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606054934/https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/basic-facts/|archive-date=2017-06-06}}</ref> Indonesia shares land borders with [[Indonesia–Malaysia border|Malaysia]] on Borneo and [[Sebatik Island|Sebatik]], [[Indonesia–Papua New Guinea border|Papua New Guinea]] on the island of New Guinea, [[East Timor–Indonesia border|East Timor]] on the island of [[Timor]], and maritime borders with [[Singapore]], Malaysia, [[Vietnam]], the [[Philippines]], [[Palau]], and [[Australia]].
At {{convert|4884|m|ft}}, [[Puncak Jaya]] is Indonesia's highest peak, and [[Lake Toba]] in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km2 (442 sq mi). [[List of rivers of Indonesia|Indonesia's largest rivers]] are in Kalimantan and [[New Guinea]] and include [[Kapuas River|Kapuas]], [[Barito River|Barito]], [[Mamberamo River|Mamberamo]], [[Sepik River|Sepik]] and [[Mahakam River|Mahakam]]. They serve as communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573214/Republic_of_Indonesia.html|title=Republic of Indonesia|publisher=Microsoft Encarta|date=2006|access-date=2009-11-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028130659/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573214/Republic_of_Indonesia.html|archive-date=2009-10-28}}</ref>
=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Indonesia|Climate change in Indonesia}}
[[File:Gunung Palung Jungle.jpg|thumb|left|Rainforest in [[Mount Palung National Park]], [[West Kalimantan]]]]
Indonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/8/f/indonesia.pdf|title=Climate: Observations, projections and impacts|publisher=Met Office Hadley Centre|access-date=2017-08-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816111123/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/8/f/indonesia.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-16}}</ref> Indonesia has two seasons—a [[wet season]] and a [[dry season]]—with no extremes of summer or winter.<ref name="worldbank1">{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf|title=Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies|publisher=World Bank|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202326/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> For most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October, with the wet season between November and April.<ref name="worldbank1" /> Indonesia's climate is almost entirely [[Tropical climate|tropical]], dominated by the [[tropical rainforest climate]] found on every large island of Indonesia. More cooling climate types do exist in mountainous regions that are {{convert|1,300|to|1,500|m|ft|lk=out|abbr=off}} above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfb'') prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with reasonably uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen ''Cwb'') is prevalent with a more pronounced dry season.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map IDN present.svg|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger climate classification]] map of Indonesia<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E.|last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution|journal=Scientific Data|date=2018-10-30|volume=5|pages=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>|alt=]]
Some regions, such as [[Kalimantan]] and [[Sumatra]], experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season and floods in the wet. Rainfall varies across regions, with more in western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua, and less in areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, which tends to be dry. The almost uniformly warm waters that constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that land temperatures remain relatively constant. [[Humidity]] is quite high, at between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with [[monsoon]]s usually blowing in from the south and east in June through October and from the northwest in November through March. [[Typhoon]]s and large-scale storms pose little hazard to mariners; significant dangers come from swift currents in channels, such as the [[Lombok Strait|Lombok]] and [[Sape Strait|Sape]] straits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/29.htm|title=Climate|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=2020-08-22|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324065541/http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/29.htm|archive-date=2019-03-24}}</ref>
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the [[Climate change in Indonesia|projected effects of climate change]].<ref>Overland, Indra et al. (2017) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312 Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier]'', Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS).</ref> These include unreduced emissions resulting in an average temperature rise of around {{cvt|1|C-change|0}} by mid-century,<ref name="ImpLab">{{Cite web|url=https://www.impactlab.org/map/#usmeas=absolute&usyear=1981-2010&gmeas=change-from-hist&gyear=2080-2099&tab=global&gvar=tasmax-over-95F&gprob=0.5&grcp=rcp85|title=Climate Impact Map|publisher=Climate Impact Lab|access-date=2018-11-18}}</ref><ref name="ClimChng">{{cite web|title=Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature|url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf|vauthors=Case M, Ardiansyah F, Spector E|publisher=WWF|date=2007-11-14|access-date=2018-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219103237/http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf|archive-date=2018-02-19|url-status=live}}</ref> raising the frequency of drought and food shortages (with an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons, and thus Indonesia's agriculture system<ref name="ClimChng" />) as well as numerous diseases and wildfires.<ref name="ClimChng" /> [[Sea level rise|Rising sea levels]] would also threaten most of Indonesia's population, who live in low-lying coastal areas.<ref name="ClimChng" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|title=Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood|date=2019-10-29|publisher=Climate Central|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102025006/https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|archive-date=2019-11-02|access-date=2019-11-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-44636934|title=Jakarta, the fastest-sinking city in the world|last1=Lin|first1=Mayuri Mei|last2=Hidayat|first2=Rafki|publisher=BBC|date=2018-08-13|access-date=2018-11-19|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018234203/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-44636934|archive-date=2018-10-18}}</ref> Impoverished communities would likely be affected the most by climate change.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia: Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile|publisher=World Bank|date=April 2011|url=http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf|access-date=2018-11-18|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206014747/http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-06}}</ref>
=== Geology ===
{{Main|Geology of Indonesia}} {{See also|Volcanoes of Indonesia}}
[[File:Map indonesia volcanoes.gif|thumb|left|Major volcanoes in Indonesia. Indonesia is in the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]] area.]]
[[Tectonics|Tectonically]], most of Indonesia's area is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.<ref name="VolEthQ" /> It lies on the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]], where the [[Indo-Australian Plate]] and the [[Pacific Plate]] are pushed under the [[Eurasian plate]], where they melt at about {{convert|100|km|abbr=off}} deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, [[Java]], [[Bali]] and [[Nusa Tenggara]], and then to the [[Banda Islands]] of [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] to northeastern [[Sulawesi]].{{sfn|Witton|2003|p=38}} Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active.<ref name="VolEthQ">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26167897|title=Indonesia: Volcano nation|publisher=BBC|date=2015-11-05|access-date=2017-11-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128105714/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26167897|archive-date=2017-11-28}}</ref> Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java.<ref>{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 10|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2007|page=1306|isbn=978-0-7614-7631-3}}</ref> [[Volcanic ash]] has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/3303/10384/1/Sylviane_Lebon_fixed.pdf|title=Volcanic activity and environment: Impacts on agriculture and use of geological data to improve recovery processes|author=Sylviane L. G. Lebon|publisher=University of Iceland|date=January 2009|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227203025/http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/3303/10384/1/Sylviane_Lebon_fixed.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1= T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2= R. E.|author3=Suraya A. A.|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|pages=95–97}}</ref>
A [[Toba catastrophe theory|massive supervolcano erupted]] at present-day [[Lake Toba]] around 70,000 BCE. It is believed to have caused a global [[volcanic winter]] and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a [[genetic bottleneck]] in human evolution, though this is still in debate.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2017/08/11/early-humans-may-have-lived-through-a-supervolcano-eruption/|title=Early Humans May Have Lived Through A Supervolcano Eruption|last=Bressan|first=David|magazine=Forbes|date=2017-08-11|access-date=2017-10-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811205248/https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2017/08/11/early-humans-may-have-lived-through-a-supervolcano-eruption/|archive-date=2017-08-11}}</ref> The [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora]] and the [[1883 eruption of Krakatoa]] were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of the archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere [[Year Without a Summer|without summer in 1816]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/tambora.html|title=Tambora|publisher=Volcano Discovery|date=2016-05-29|access-date=2016-12-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220181832/https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/tambora.html|archive-date=2016-12-20}}</ref> The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2016/08/31/the-eruption-of-krakatoa-was-the-first-global-catastrophe/|title=The Eruption of Krakatoa Was the First Global Catastrophe|last=Bressan|first=David|magazine=Forbes|date=2016-08-31|access-date=2017-09-02|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160902143003/https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2016/08/31/the-eruption-of-krakatoa-was-the-first-global-catastrophe/|archive-date=2016-09-02}}</ref> Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] and the [[2006 Yogyakarta earthquake]].
=== Biodiversity and conservation ===
{{Main|Fauna of Indonesia|Flora of Indonesia|Protected areas of Indonesia}}<!----Galleries of images are generally discouraged in summary articles as they cause undue weight to one particular section and may cause accessibility problems.--->
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Rafflesia arnoldi 2013-12-31 21-48.JPG
| image2 = Man of the woods.JPG
| image3 = Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis).jpg
| image4 = Paradisaea apoda -Bali Bird Park-6.jpg
| footer = Species endemic to Indonesia. '''Clockwise from top''': ''[[Rafflesia arnoldii]]''; [[orangutan]]; [[greater bird-of-paradise]]; and [[Komodo dragon]].
}}
Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity, and it is among the 17 [[megadiverse countries]] identified by [[Conservation International]]. Its flora and fauna are a mixture of Asian and [[Australasian realm|Australasian]] species.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia's Natural Wealth: The Right of a Nation and Her People|last=Mumtazah|first= Hani|publisher=Islam Online|date=2003-05-22|url=http://www.islamonline.net/English/Science/2003/05/article13.shtml|access-date=2006-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017034459/http://www.islamonline.net/English/Science/2003/05/article13.shtml|archive-date=2006-10-17|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=These Are The 5 Most Biodiverse Countries In The World|publisher=Yahoo|url=https://news.yahoo.com/5-most-biodiverse-countries-world-214740659.html|access-date=2022-03-02}}</ref> The [[Sunda Shelf]] islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the [[Sumatran tiger]], rhinoceros, orangutan, [[Asian elephant]], and leopard were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1= T.|last2=Henderson|first2= G.|last3=Mustafa|first3= M.|title=The Ecology of Sulawesi|publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd.|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-075-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Monk|first1= K.A.|last2=Fretes|first2= Y.|last3=Reksodiharjo-Lilley|first3= G.|title=The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku|publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd.|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-593-076-3}}</ref> Papua was part of the Australian landmass and is home to a [[Fauna of New Guinea|unique fauna and flora]] closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geographia.com/indonesia/indono02.htm|title=Indonesia|publisher=InterKnowledge Corp|date=2006-10-06|access-date=2006-10-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015200544/http://www.geographia.com/indonesia/indono02.htm|archive-date=2006-10-15}}</ref>
Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total [[Endemism|endemic]] species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/468283.html|title=A Naturalist's Guide to the Tropics, excerpt|last=Lambertini|first= Marco|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|date=2011-04-10|access-date=2017-02-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205010300/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/468283.html|archive-date=2017-02-05}}</ref> Tropical seas surround Indonesia's {{convert|80,000|km|mi|abbr=off}} of coastline. The country has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including [[list of beaches in Indonesia|beaches]], dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.<ref name="EcoSeas1" /> Indonesia is one of the [[Coral Triangle]] countries with the world's most enormous diversity of [[coral reef fish]], with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/71545/coral-reef-destruction-spells-humanitarian-disaster|title=Coral reef destruction spells humanitarian disaster|last=Tamindael|first= Otniel|publisher=Antara News|date=2011-05-17|access-date=2011-05-25|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525101139/http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/71545/coral-reef-destruction-spells-humanitarian-disaster|archive-date=2011-05-25}}</ref>
British naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] described a dividing line ([[Wallace Line]]) between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.<ref name="Severin">{{cite book|last=Severin|first= Tim|title=The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace|publisher=Abacus Travel|year=1997|location=Great Britain|isbn=978-0-349-11040-0}}</ref> It runs roughly north–south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep [[Lombok Strait]], between [[Lombok]] and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the line are generally Asian, while east from Lombok is increasingly Australian until the tipping point at the [[Weber Line]]. In his 1869 book, ''[[The Malay Archipelago]]'', Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wallace|first= A.R.|title=The Malay Archipelago|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=2000|orig-year=1869|isbn=978-962-593-645-1}}</ref> The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed [[Wallacea]].<ref name="Severin" />
[[File:Riau palm oil 2007.jpg|thumb|Deforestation in Riau province, [[Sumatra]], to make way for an [[oil palm]] plantation (2007)]]
Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious [[Environmental issues in Indonesia|environmental issues]]. They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.<ref name="forestprob">{{cite web|last=Miller|first= Jason R.|date=2007-08-14|url=http://www.american.edu/TED/ORANG.HTM|title=Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population|publisher=TED Case Studies|access-date=2007-08-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811041439/http://www.american.edu/TED/ORANG.HTM|archive-date=2007-08-11}}</ref> Problems include the destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal [[deforestation]] (causing [[Southeast Asian haze|extensive haze across parts of Southeast Asia]]), over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and reliable [[Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia|water and wastewater services]].<ref name="forestprob" /> These issues contribute to Indonesia's low ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 [[Environmental Performance Index]]. The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance is generally below average in both regional and global context.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://epi.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/IDN_EPI2020_CP.pdf|title=2020 Environmental Performance Index|publisher=Yale University|date=2020|access-date=2020-06-09|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609071235/https://epi.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/IDN_EPI2020_CP.pdf|archive-date=2020-06-09}}</ref>
Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates.<ref>{{Citation |title=Selling Out West Papua {{!}} 101 East |date=June 25, 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cBbVu1ZOpYY&t=114s |publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=sust>{{cite journal|last1=Limaho|first1= Handoko|author2=Sugiarto|last3=Pramono|first3= Rudy|last4=Christiawan|first4= Rio|date=2022-07-14|title=The Need for Global Green Marketing for the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia|journal=Sustainability|volume=14|issue=14|page=8621|doi=10.3390/su14148621|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS?locations=ID|title=Forest area (% of land area) – Indoneisa|publisher=World Bank|access-date=2021-06-14}}</ref> down from 87% in 1950.<ref name="landuse">{{cite journal|last1=Tsujino|first1= Riyou|last2=Yumoto|first2= Takakazu|last3=Kitamura|first3= Shumpei|last4=Djamaluddin|first4= Ibrahim|last5=Darnaedi|first5= Dedy|date=November 2016|title=History of forest loss and degradation in Indonesia|journal=Land Use Policy|volume=57|pages=335–347|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.034}}</ref> Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the [[deforestation in Indonesia]].<ref name="landuse" /> Most recently, it has been driven by the [[palm oil]] industry,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Austin|first1= Kemen G|last2=Schwantes|first2= Amanda|last3=Gu|first3= Yaofeng|last4=Kasibhatla|first4= Prasad D|date=2019-02-01|title=What causes deforestation in Indonesia?|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|issue=2|page=024007|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db|bibcode=2019ERL....14b4007A|doi-access=free}}</ref> which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities.<ref name=sust /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mekongdmp.net/data/Resourcespapers/filepdf/PromisedLand.pdf|title=Palm Oil and Land Acquisition in Indonesia: Implications for Local Communities and Indigenous People|first1=Marcus|last1=Colchester|first2=Normal|last2=Jiwan|last3=Andiko|first3=Martua Sirait|first4=Asup Y.|last4=Firdaus|first5=A.|last5=Surambo|first6=Herbert|last6=Pane|date=2012-03-26|access-date=2012-05-31|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531005507/http://mekongdmp.net/data/Resourcespapers/filepdf/PromisedLand.pdf|archive-date=2012-05-31}}</ref> The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chrysolite|first1=Hanny|last2=Juliane|first2=Reidinar|last3=Chitra|first3=Josefhine|last4=Ge|first4=Mengpin|date=2017-10-04|title=Evaluating Indonesia's Progress on its Climate Commitments|url=http://www.wri.org/blog/2017/10/evaluating-indonesias-progress-its-climate-commitments|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005000659/http://www.wri.org/blog/2017/10/evaluating-indonesias-progress-its-climate-commitments|archive-date=2017-10-05|access-date=2018-08-26|website=[[World Resources Institute]]}}</ref> It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as [[threatened species|threatened]] and 15 as critically endangered, including the [[Bali myna]],<ref>{{cite iucn|author=BirdLife International|title=''Leucopsar rothschildi''|volume=2016|page=e.T22710912A94267053|year=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22710912A94267053.en}}</ref> [[Sumatran orangutan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/content/extinction-crisis-escalates-red-list-shows-apes-corals-vultures-dolphins-all-danger|title=Extinction crisis escalates: Red List shows apes, corals, vultures, dolphins all in danger|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature|date=2007-09-12|access-date=2016-10-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016135339/https://www.iucn.org/content/extinction-crisis-escalates-red-list-shows-apes-corals-vultures-dolphins-all-danger|archive-date=2016-10-16}}</ref> and [[Javan rhinoceros]].<ref>{{Cite iucn|last=van Strien|first= N.J.|last2=Steinmetz|first2= R.|last3=Manullang|first3= B.|last4=Sectionov|first4= K.H.|last5=Isnan|first5= W.|last6=Rookmaaker|first6= K.|last7=Sumardja|first7= E.|last8=Khan|first8= M.K.M.|last9=Ellis|first9= S.|name-list-style=amp|title=''Rhinoceros sondaicus''|volume=2008|page=e.T19495A8925965|date=2008|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19495A8925965.en}}</ref>
== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Indonesia}}
[[File:Ruang MPR.jpg|thumb|A presidential inauguration by the MPR in the [[DPR/MPR Building|Parliament Complex]] Jakarta, [[First inauguration of Joko Widodo|2014]]|alt=]]
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the [[Fall of Suharto|fall of the New Order]] in 1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with [[Constitution of Indonesia#Constitutional amendments|four constitutional amendments]] revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches.<ref name="Harijanti2006">{{cite journal|title=Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court|last1=Dwi Harijanti|first1=Susi|last2=Lindsey|first2=Tim|journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law|volume=4|issue=1|pages=138–150|doi=10.1093/icon/moi055|date=2006-01-01|doi-access=free}}</ref> Chief among them is the delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a [[unitary state]].<ref>{{Citation|last1=Ardiansyah|first1=Fitrian|last2=Marthen|first2=Andri|last3=Amalia|first3=Nur|title=Forest and land-use governance in a decentralized Indonesia|date=2015|doi =10.17528/cifor/005695|doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[President of Indonesia]] is the [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Indonesian National Armed Forces]] (''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'', TNI), and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.<ref>(2002), ''The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution'', Chapter III – The Executive Power, Article 7.</ref>
The highest representative body at the national level is the [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'', MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president,<ref>Chapter II, Article 3, 3rd Clause of the 1945 Constitution.</ref><ref name="UUD45">{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf|title=The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia|publisher=International Labour Organization|access-date=2017-10-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011113409/http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-11}}</ref> and formalising broad outlines of state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the [[People's Representative Council]] (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat'', DPR), with 575 members, and the [[Regional Representative Council]] (''Dewan Perwakilan Daerah'', DPD), with 136.<ref name="INAlegis">{{cite web|url=https://australiaindonesiacentre.org/app/uploads/2018/09/Guide-to-the-2019-Presidential-Elections-Kevin-Evans.pdf|title=Guide to the 2019 Indonesian Elections|last=Evans|first=Kevin|publisher=Australia-Indonesia Centre|date=2019|access-date=2019-07-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417120111/https://australiaindonesiacentre.org/app/uploads/2018/09/Guide-to-the-2019-Presidential-Elections-Kevin-Evans.pdf|archive-date=2019-04-17}}</ref> The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance,<ref name="Harijanti2006" /> while the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.<ref>Chapter VIIA, Article 22D of the 1945 Constitution.</ref><ref name="UUD45" />
Most civil disputes appear before the State Court (''Pengadilan Negeri''); appeals are heard before the High Court (''Pengadilan Tinggi''). The [[Supreme Court of Indonesia]] (''Mahkamah Agung'') is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the [[Constitutional Court of Indonesia|Constitutional Court]] (''Mahkamah Konstitusi'') which listens to constitutional and political matters, and the Religious Court (''Pengadilan Agama''), which deals with codified Islamic Personal Law (''sharia'') cases.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cammack|first1=Mark E.|last2=Feener|first2=R. Michael|publisher=Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal|date=January 2012|title=The Islamic Legal System in Indonesia|url=http://digital.law.washington.edu/dspace-law/bitstream/handle/1773.1/1091/21PRPLJ013.pdf|access-date=2017-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701133616/http://digital.law.washington.edu/dspace-law/bitstream/handle/1773.1/1091/21PRPLJ013.pdf|archive-date=2017-07-01|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Judicial Commission of Indonesia|Judicial Commission]] (''Komisi Yudisial'') monitors the performance of judges.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.komisiyudisial.go.id/frontend/static_content/authority_and_duties/about_ky|title=Authority and Duty|publisher=Judicial Commission of the Republic of Indonesia|language=id}}</ref>
=== Parties and elections ===
{{Main|List of political parties in Indonesia|Elections in Indonesia}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 260
| image1 = Joko Widodo 2019 official portrait.jpg
| caption1 = [[Joko Widodo]],<br /><small> 7th [[President of Indonesia]]<br /></small>
| image2 = Ma'ruf Amin 2019 official portrait.jpg
| caption2 = [[Ma'ruf Amin]],<br /><small> 13th [[Vice President of Indonesia]]<br /></small>
}}
Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all [[Elections in Indonesia|legislative elections]] since the fall of the [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]], no political party has won an overall majority of seats. The [[Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle]] (PDI-P), which secured the most votes in the [[2019 Indonesian general election|2019 elections]], is the party of the incumbent president, [[Joko Widodo]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/15/world/asia/jakarta-governor-joko-widodo.html|title=Governor of Jakarta Receives His Party's Nod for President|last=Cochrane|first=Joe|work=The New York Times|date=2014-03-15|access-date=2017-02-03|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203052210/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/15/world/asia/jakarta-governor-joko-widodo.html|archive-date=2017-02-03}}</ref> Other notable parties include the [[Golkar|Party of the Functional Groups]] (''Golkar''), the [[Great Indonesia Movement Party]] (''Gerindra''), the [[Democratic Party (Indonesia)|Democratic Party]], and the [[Prosperous Justice Party]] (PKS).
The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the [[Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia|Constitutional Assembly]] (''Konstituante''). The most recent elections in 2019 resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with a [[Election threshold|parliamentary threshold]] of 4% of the national vote.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/academia/2017/08/04/new-election-bill-new-hope-for-democracy.html|title=New election bill, new hope for democracy|last=Maboy|first= Olasri|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2017-08-04|access-date=2018-10-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010124440/http://www.thejakartapost.com/academia/2017/08/04/new-election-bill-new-hope-for-democracy.html|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.<ref name="INAlegis" /><ref name="Harijanti2006" /> Beginning with the [[2015 Indonesian local elections|2015 local elections]], elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/02/08/explaining-the-2019-simultaneous-elections.html|title=Explaining the 2019 simultaneous elections|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|last=Tehusijarana|first= Karina M.|date=2019-02-08|access-date=2020-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513073335/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/02/08/explaining-the-2019-simultaneous-elections.html|archive-date=2019-05-13|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Indonesia}}
Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level are the [[Provinces of Indonesia|provinces]], which have a legislature (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah'', DPRD) and an elected [[List of current governors in Indonesia|governor]]. A total of 38 provinces have been established from the original eight in 1945,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/muspres/sejarah-wilayah-indonesia/|title=Sejarah Wilayah Indonesia|date=2018-09-12|author=Museum Kepresidenan|publisher=[[Ministry of Education and Culture (Indonesia)|Ministry of Education and Culture]]|access-date=2020-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129032207/https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/muspres/sejarah-wilayah-indonesia/|archive-date=2020-01-29|url-status=live}}</ref> with the most recent change being the split of [[Southwest Papua]] from the province of [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]] in 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.antaranews.com/news/264759/southwest-papua-officially-becomes-indonesias-38th-province|title=Southwest Papua officially becomes Indonesia's 38th province|publisher=[[Antara (news agency)|Antara]]|first=Fardah|last=Assegaf|date=2022-12-09|access-date=2023-02-07}}</ref> The second level are the [[regency (Indonesia)|regencies]] (''kabupaten'') and [[city status in Indonesia|cities]] (''kota''), led by regents (''bupati'') and mayors (''walikota'') respectively and a legislature (''DPRD Kabupaten/Kota''). The third level are the [[Districts of Indonesia|districts]] (''kecamatan'', ''distrik'' in [[Western New Guinea|Papua]], or ''kapanewon'' and ''kemantren'' in [[Special Region of Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]]), and the fourth are the [[Villages of Indonesia|villages]] (either ''desa'', ''kelurahan'', ''kampung'', ''nagari'' in [[West Sumatra]], or ''gampong'' in [[Aceh]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Setiawan|first= Irfan|title=Rekonstruksi Birokrasi Pemerintahan Daerah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYgpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188|publisher=Institut Pemerintahan Dalam Negeri|year=2014|pages=187–188}}</ref>
The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several community groups (''rukun warga'', RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups (''rukun tetangga'', RT). In Java, the village (''desa'') is divided into smaller units called ''dusun'' or ''dukuh'' (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become chief administrative units responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles village or neighbourhood matters through an elected village head (''lurah'' or ''kepala desa'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.insideindonesia.org/the-village-head-as-patron-2|title=The village head as patron|publisher=Inside Indonesia|last1=Berenschot|first1= Ward|last2=Sambodho|first2= Prio|date=2017-05-09|access-date=2020-08-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329193633/https://www.insideindonesia.org/the-village-head-as-patron-2|archive-date=2018-03-29}}</ref>
Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, [[Papua (province)|Papua]], [[Central Papua]], [[Highland Papua]], [[South Papua]], [[Southwest Papua]] and [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]]—are granted a [[Autonomous administrative division|special autonomous status]] (''otonomi khusus'') from the central government. A conservative [[Islamism|Islamic territory]], Aceh has the right to create some aspects of an independent legal system implementing ''[[sharia]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Michelle Ann Miller|title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?|journal=Asian Ethnicity|volume=5|issue=3|year=2004|pages=333–351|doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789|s2cid=143311407}}</ref> Jakarta is the only [[Independent city|city with a provincial government]] due to its position as the [[capital of Indonesia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/hol19575/dki-jakarta-sebuah-kota-yang-berstatus-provinsi/|title=DKI Jakarta, a City with a Provincial Status?|date=2008-06-26|publisher=Hukum Online|language=id|access-date=2020-02-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219162152/https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/hol19575/dki-jakarta-sebuah-kota-yang-berstatus-provinsi/|archive-date=2020-02-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2015/06/23/17201151/22.Fakta.tentang.Kota.Jakarta?page=all|title=22 Facts About the City of Jakarta|work=[[Kompas]]|date=2015-06-23|first=Arief|last=Kurniawan|access-date=2021-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607024749/http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2015/06/23/17201151/22.Fakta.tentang.Kota.Jakarta?page=all|archive-date=2017-06-07}}</ref> Yogyakarta is the only [[List of Indonesian monarchies|pre-colonial monarchy]] legally recognised within Indonesia, with the positions of governor and vice governor being prioritised for the reigning [[Yogyakarta Sultanate|Sultan of Yogyakarta]] and [[Pakualaman|Duke of Pakualaman]], respectively.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/11/23/thousands-bid-farewell-yogyakarta-pakualaman-leader.html|title=Thousands bid farewell to Yogyakarta, Pakualaman leader|work=[[The Jakarta Post]]|first=Slamet|last=Susanto|date=2015-11-23|access-date=2022-06-27}}</ref> The six Papuan provinces are the only ones where the [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|indigenous people]] have privileges in their local government.<ref>{{cite news|date=2019-09-17|title=Putting Indigenous Papuans as the Leading Subject of Development|language=id|url=https://www.indonesia.go.id/narasi/indonesia-dalam-angka/ekonomi/menempatkan-orang-papua-asli-sebagai-subjek-utama-pembangunan|url-status=live|access-date=2020-02-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219162329/https://www.indonesia.go.id/narasi/indonesia-dalam-angka/ekonomi/menempatkan-orang-papua-asli-sebagai-subjek-utama-pembangunan|archive-date=2020-02-19}}</ref>
{{transcluded section|source=Template:Indonesia provinces labelled map}}
{{center|{{Indonesia provinces labelled map}}}}
=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Indonesia}}
[[File:Australias indonesian embassy.jpg|thumb|[[Embassy of Indonesia, Canberra]], Australia]]
Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kemlu.go.id/portal/id/page/29/kedutaan_konsulat|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs – Republic of Indonesia|date=2019-03-26|title=Missions|access-date=2019-07-15|language=id}}</ref> The country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://btk.ppke.hu/uploads/articles/554378/file/Feny%C5%91%20M%C3%A1rton_Szakdolgozat_MA_2015.pdf|title=The Foreign Policy of Indonesia In Light of President Jokowi's "Visi-Misi" Program|last1=Péter|first1=Klemensits|last2=Márton|first2=Fenyő|publisher=Pázmány Péter Catholic University|date=2017-08-16|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152016/https://btk.ppke.hu/uploads/articles/554378/file/Feny%C5%91%20M%C3%A1rton_Szakdolgozat_MA_2015.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref>
Indonesia was a significant battleground during the Cold War. Numerous attempts by the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|title=What the United States Did in Indonesia|last=Bevins|first= Vincent|publisher=The Atlantic|date=2017-10-20|access-date=2019-07-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190633/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|archive-date=2019-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/94948/wp_sdsc_411.pdf|title=Strategic Realignment or Déjà vu? Russia-Indonesia Defence Cooperation in the Twenty-First Century|last1=Muraviev|first1=Alexey|last2=Brown|first2=Colin|publisher=Australian National University|date=December 2008|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202518/https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/94948/wp_sdsc_411.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> and [[China]] to some degree,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/10/01/china-and-sept-30-movement.html|title=China and the Sept. 30 movement|last=Dahana|first= A.|publisher=The Jakarta Post|date=2015-10-01|access-date=2019-07-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005021538/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/10/01/china-and-sept-30-movement.html|archive-date=2015-10-05}}</ref> culminated in the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy.{{sfn|Robinson|2018}} Quiet alignment with the Western world while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/97.htm|title=Indonesia – Foreign Policy|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=2006-09-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927151642/http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/97.htm|archive-date=2006-09-27}}</ref> Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ([[ASEAN]]) and the [[East Asia Summit]]. In common with most of the [[Muslim world]], Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with [[Israel]] and has actively supported [[State of Palestine|Palestine]]. However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/03/the-quiet-growth-in-indonesia-israel-relations/|title=The Quiet Growth in Indonesia-Israel Relations|author=Muhammad Zulfikar Rakhmat|magazine=The Diplomat|date=2015-03-11|access-date=2018-09-08|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613085526/https://thediplomat.com/2015/03/the-quiet-growth-in-indonesia-israel-relations/|archive-date=2018-06-13}}</ref>
Indonesia has been [[Indonesia and the United Nations|a member]] of the [[United Nations]] since 1950{{efn|name=fn2|During the [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation]], Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the [[United Nations Security Council]], although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rappler.com/world/regions/asia-pacific/indonesia/bahasa/englishedition/143883-united-nations-withdrawal-philippines-duterte|title=What happened when Indonesia 'withdrew' from the United Nations|last=Gutierrez|first= Natashya|work=Rappler|date=2016-08-22|access-date=2018-09-08|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101151415/https://www.rappler.com/world/regions/asia-pacific/indonesia/bahasa/englishedition/143883-united-nations-withdrawal-philippines-duterte|archive-date=2016-11-01}}</ref>}} and was a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM) and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fri_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PP62|title=Indonesia's Ascent: Power, Leadership, and the Regional Order|date=2015-02-25|access-date=2017-12-19|isbn=978-1-137-39741-6|last1=Roberts|first1=C.|last2=Habir|first2=A.|last3=Sebastian|first3=L.}}</ref> Indonesia is a signatory to the [[ASEAN Free Trade Area]] agreement, the [[Cairns Group]], the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), and a former member of [[OPEC]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-opec-meeting-indonesia-idUSKBN13Q3M7|title=Net oil importer Indonesia leaves producer club OPEC, again|last1=Jensen|first1=Fergus|last2=Asmarini|first2=Wilda|work=Reuters|access-date=2016-12-01|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201141227/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-opec-meeting-indonesia-idUSKBN13Q3M7|archive-date=2016-12-01}}</ref> Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://devinit.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Investments-to-End-Poverty-Chapter-10-Indonesia.pdf|title=Indonesia|publisher=Development Initiatives|date=2013|access-date=2018-07-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107152704/http://devinit.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Investments-to-End-Poverty-Chapter-10-Indonesia.pdf|archive-date=2014-01-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2017/12/02/why-does-indonesia-seem-to-prefer-foreign-aid-from-china/|title=Why does Indonesia seem to prefer foreign aid from China?|author=Pierre van der Eng|publisher=East Asia Forum|date=2017-12-02|access-date=2018-07-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722143133/http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2017/12/02/why-does-indonesia-seem-to-prefer-foreign-aid-from-china/|archive-date=2018-07-22}}</ref> and recently, the country established its first overseas aid programme in late 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/10/18/indonesia-launches-international-assistance-agency.html|title=Indonesia Launches $212M International Development Aid Fund|publisher=Jakarta Globe|last=Yasmin|first= Nur|date=2019-10-18|access-date=2020-11-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020134511/https://jakartaglobe.id/news/indonesia-launches-212m-international-development-aid-fund|archive-date=2019-10-20}}</ref>
=== Military ===
{{Main|Indonesian National Armed Forces|Military history of Indonesia}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Tniadkostrad.jpg
| image2 = Tni-au su-30 1.jpg
| image3 = RAN-IFR 2013 D3 83.JPG
| image4 = Pindad Anoa APS-3 RLG.jpg
| footer = Indonesian Armed Forces. '''Clockwise from top''': [[Indonesian Army]] during training session; [[Sukhoi Su-30]]; [[Anoa (armoured personnel carrier)|Pindad Anoa]]; and Indonesian naval vessel {{ship|KRI|Sultan Iskandar Muda|367|4}}.
}}
Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include the [[Indonesian Army|Army]] (TNI–AD), [[Indonesian Navy|Navy]] (TNI–AL, which includes [[Indonesian Marine Corps|Marine Corps]]), and [[Indonesian Air Force|Air Force]] (TNI–AU). The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of GDP in 2018,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ms.mil.xpnd.gd.zs?end=2018&start=2007&view=chart|title=Indonesia: Military expenditure (% of GDP)|publisher=World Bank|date=2018|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref> with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and foundations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2016/06/17/tnis-gold-mine-corruption-and-military-owned-businesses-in-indonesia/|title=TNI's Gold Mine: Corruption and Military-Owned Businesses in Indonesia|author=Jessica Vincentia Marpaung|publisher=The Global Anti Corruption Blog|date=2016-06-17|access-date=2017-12-18|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218051830/https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2016/06/17/tnis-gold-mine-corruption-and-military-owned-businesses-in-indonesia/|archive-date=2017-12-18}}</ref> The Armed Forces were formed during the [[Indonesian National Revolution]] when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia. Since then, territorial lines have formed the basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp9899/99rp23|title=Indonesian Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia-TNI)|last=Lowry|first= Bob|publisher=Parliament of Australia|date=1999-06-29|access-date=2019-07-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008153611/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp9899/99rp23|archive-date=2017-10-08}}</ref> The military has possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which [[Dwifungsi|peaked during the New Order]]. Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature. Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/4977/thesis.pdf?sequence=1|title=The Political Influence of the Military Before and After Democratic Transition: Experiences from Indonesia – An Assessment on Myanmar|last=Beets|first= Benjamin H.|publisher=Victoria University of Wellington|date=2015|access-date=2018-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730110650/https://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/4977/thesis.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=2018-07-30|url-status=live}}</ref>
Since independence, the country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and separatist movements.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://articles.latimes.com/1990-09-09/news/mn-439_1_separatist-movements|title=Indonesia Faces 3 Separatist Movements|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=1990-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151213/http://articles.latimes.com/1990-09-09/news/mn-439_1_separatist-movements|archive-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|access-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> Some, notably in [[Insurgency in Aceh|Aceh]] and [[Papua conflict|Papua]], have led to an armed conflict and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Agustinus Beo da Costa, Tom Allard|date=2021-05-21|title=Indonesia's troop surge to 'wipe out' armed rebels, says police chief|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/southeast-asia/indonesia-papua-police-chief-rebels-b1851320.html|website=[[The Independent]]|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Friend|2003|pp=270–273, 477–480}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3809079.stm|title=Indonesia flashpoints: Aceh|publisher=BBC|date=2005-12-29|access-date=2006-08-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822194320/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3809079.stm|archive-date=2006-08-22}}</ref> The former was resolved peacefully in 2005,<ref name="AcehPeace" /> while the latter has continued amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws and a reported decline in the levels of violence and [[Human rights in Indonesia#West Papua issues|human rights abuses]] as of 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions|date=2006-09-05|url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/indonesia/b53_papua_answers_to_frequently_asked_questions.pdf|publisher=International Crisis Group|access-date=2006-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060918233640/http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/indonesia/b53_papua_answers_to_frequently_asked_questions.pdf|archive-date=2006-09-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other engagements of the army include the [[West New Guinea dispute|conflict]] against the Netherlands over the [[Dutch New Guinea]], the opposition to the [[British Empire|British]]-sponsored [[Malaysia Agreement|creation of Malaysia]] ("[[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation|Konfrontasi]]"), the [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|mass killings]] of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and the [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invasion of East Timor]], which remains Indonesia's most massive military operation.<ref>Indonesia. Department of Foreign Affairs. ''Decolonization in East Timor''. Jakarta: Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, 1977. {{OCLC|4458152}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Budiardjo|first1=Carmel|first2=Liem Soei|last2=Liong|title=The War against East Timor|location=London|publisher=Zed Books|year=1984|page=22|isbn=0-86232-228-6}}</ref>
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Indonesia|Economic history of Indonesia}}
{{See also|Agriculture in Indonesia}}
[[File:Oil palm plantation in Cigudeg-03.jpg|thumb|right|Vast [[palm oil]] plantation in [[Bogor Regency]], [[West Java]]. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pacheco|first1= P.|last2=Gnych|first2= S.|last3=Dermawan|first3= A.|last4=Komarudin|first4= H.|last5=Okarda|first5= B.|date=2017|title=The Palm Oil Global Value Chain: Implications for Economic Growth and Social and Environmental Sustainability|journal=Center for International Forestry Research – Working Paper|volume=220}}</ref>]]
[[File:Indonesia Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Indonesia exports, 2019]]
Indonesia has a [[mixed economy]] in which the private sector and government play vital roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/economy/item177|title=Economy of Indonesia|publisher=Indonesia Investments|access-date=2017-05-04|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504124120/https://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/economy/item177|archive-date=2017-05-04}}</ref> As the only [[G20]] member state in Southeast Asia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://g20.org/|title=G20 Presidency of Indonesia|publisher=G20}}</ref> the country has the largest economy in the region and is classified as a [[newly industrialised country]]. Per a 2023 estimate, it is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|16th largest economy by nominal GDP]] and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|7th in terms of GDP at PPP]], estimated to be {{currency|1.392 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}} and {{currency|4.398 trillion|USD|passthrough=yes}}, respectively. Per capita GDP in PPP is {{currency|15,855|USD|passthrough=no}}, while nominal [[gross domestic product|per capita GDP]] is {{currency|5,016|USD|passthrough=no}}.<ref name="IMF" /> Services are the economy's largest sector and account for 43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/319236/share-of-economic-sectors-in-the-gdp-in-indonesia/|title=Indonesia: Share of economic sectors in the gross domestic product (GDP) from 2008 to 2018|publisher=Statista|date=December 2019|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref> Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/320160/employment-by-economic-sector-in-indonesia/|title=Indonesia: Distribution of employment by economic sector from 2009 to 2019|publisher=Statista|date=December 2019|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref>
Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably.<ref name="RBA">{{cite web|url=http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2011/dec/pdf/bu-1211-4.pdf|title=The Growth and Development of the Indonesian Economy|last1=Elias|first1=Stephen|last2=Noone|first2=Clare|publisher=Reserve Bank of Australia|date=December 2011|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227203419/http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2011/dec/pdf/bu-1211-4.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> Historically, it has been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and government policies in the 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency.<ref name="RBA" /> A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports.<ref name="RBA" /> This development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the [[1990 oil price shock]], during which the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%. As a result, the official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Indonesia-POVERTY-AND-WEALTH.html|title=Indonesia – Poverty and Wealth|publisher=Encyclopedia of the Nations|access-date=2011-07-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714155857/http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Indonesia-POVERTY-AND-WEALTH.html#ixzz1FB50TL4X|archive-date=2011-07-14}}</ref> Trade barriers reduction from the mid-1980s made the economy more globally integrated. The growth ended with the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]] that severely impacted the economy, including a 13.1% real GDP contraction in 1998 and a 78% inflation. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Titiheruw|first1=Ira S.|last2=Atje|first2=Raymond|date=2008|title=Managing Capital Flows: The Case of Indonesia|journal=Asian Development Bank Institute Discussion Paper|volume=94|pages=9–10}}</ref>
Relatively steady inflation<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/economics/working_papers/pdffiles/dp01522.pdf|title=Growing into trouble: Indonesia after 1966|last=Temple|first= Jonathan|publisher=University of Bristol|date=2001-08-15|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202512/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/economics/working_papers/pdffiles/dp01522.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> and an increase in GDP deflator and the Consumer Price Index<ref>{{cite web|url=https://socialhistory.org/sites/default/files/docs/ecgrowtheng.pdf|title=Indonesia's growth experience in the 20th century: Evidence, queries, guesses|last=van der Eng|first= Pierre|publisher=Australian National University|date=2002-02-04|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152026/https://socialhistory.org/sites/default/files/docs/ecgrowtheng.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years. From 2007 to 2019, annual growth accelerated to between 4% and 6% due to improvements in the banking sector and domestic consumption,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=42&pr.y=11&sy=2007&ey=2017&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=536&s=NGDP_RPCH&grp=0&a=|title=World Economic Outlook Database: Report for Selected Countries and Subjects – Indonesia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=October 2017|access-date=2018-01-09}}</ref> helping Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 [[Great Recession]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2009/car072809b.htm|title=IMF Survey: Indonesia's Choice of Policy Mix Critical to Ongoing Growth|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=2009-07-28|access-date=2017-02-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205010131/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2009/car072809b.htm|archive-date=2017-02-05}}</ref> and regain in 2011 the investment grade rating it had lost in 1997.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/business/fitch-upgrades-indonesias-rating-to-investment-grade/484940|title=Fitch Upgrades Indonesia's Rating to Investment Grade|newspaper=Jakarta Globe|date=2011-12-15|access-date=2012-02-08|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108060719/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/business/fitch-upgrades-indonesias-rating-to-investment-grade/484940|archive-date=2012-01-08}}</ref> {{as of|2019}}, 9.41% of the population lived below the poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/indonesia-s-economy-grew-last-year-despite-shortfalls/1697593|title=Indonesia's economy grew last year despite shortfalls|last=Musyaffa|first= Iqbal|publisher=Anadoly Agency|date=2020-01-09|access-date=2020-03-28|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110142100/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/indonesia-s-economy-grew-last-year-despite-shortfalls/1697593|archive-date=2020-01-10}}</ref> During the first year of the global [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the economy suffered its first recession since the 1997 crisis but recovered in the following year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/37584|title=Indonesia Economic Prospects, June 2022 : Financial Deepening for Stronger Growth and Sustainable Recovery|publisher=WorldBank|date=2022-05-31|access-date=2022-08-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622092437/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/37584|archive-date=2022-06-22}}</ref>
Indonesia has abundant natural resources. Its primary industries are fishing, petroleum, timber, paper products, cotton cloth, tourism, petroleum mining, natural gas, bauxite, coal and tin. Its main agricultural products are rice, coconuts, soybeans, bananas, coffee, tea, palm, rubber, and sugar cane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.embassyofindonesia.org/basic-facts/|title=Facts & Figures – Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia | Washington D.C.|access-date=5 September 2022|archive-date=5 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905163515/http://www.embassyofindonesia.org/basic-facts/|url-status=dead}}</ref> These commodities make up a large portion of the country's exports, with palm oil and coal briquettes as the leading export commodities. In addition to refined and crude petroleum as the primary imports, telephones, vehicle parts and wheat cover the majority of additional imports. China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand are Indonesia's principal export markets and import partners.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/idn|title=Indonesia|publisher=The Observatory of Economic Complexity|date=2019|access-date=2020-08-22}}</ref>
=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Indonesia}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Transjakarta_PKT_106_at_Gambir.jpg
| image2 = Percobaan 205-10 dengan Livery KAI Commuter terbaru Tahun 2020.jpg
| image3 = Pelni Einschiffung.jpg
| image4 = PK-GIE Garuda Indonesia Boeing 777-3U3(ER) cn29147, Take off from Schiphol (AMS - EHAM), The Netherlands.JPG
| footer = Major transport modes in Indonesia. '''Clockwise from top''': [[TransJakarta]] bus; [[KRL Commuterline]]; [[Garuda Indonesia]] Boeing 777–300 ER; and [[Pelni]] ship.
}}
Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipelago and the distribution of its 275 million people highly concentrated on [[Java]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Legge|first1=John D.|title=Review: Indonesia's Diversity Revisited|journal=Indonesia|date=April 1990|volume=49|issue=49|pages=127–131|url=http://cip.cornell.edu/seap.indo/1107012385|jstor=3351057|doi=10.2307/3351057|hdl=1813/53928|hdl-access=free}}</ref> All transport modes play a role in the country's transport system and are generally complementary rather than competitive. In 2016, the transport sector generated about 5.2% of GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.emis.com/blog/indonesia-transportation-sector-report-20172018|title=Indonesian Transportation Sector Report 2017/2018|last=del Olmo|first= Esmeralda|publisher=EMIS|date=2017-11-06|access-date=2018-10-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024074026/https://www.emis.com/blog/indonesia-transportation-sector-report-20172018|archive-date=2018-10-24}}</ref>
The road transport system is predominant, with a total length of {{convert|542310|km|mi|abbr=off}} {{As of|2018|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/linkTableDinamis/view/id/820|title=Length of Road by Surface, 1957–2018 (Km)|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|language=id|access-date=2020-03-21}}</ref> Jakarta has the [[TransJakarta|most extended bus rapid transit system globally]], boasting {{convert|251.2|km|abbr=off}} in 13 corridors and ten cross-corridor routes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://transjakarta.co.id/produk-dan-layanan/infrastruktur/koridor/|title=Koridor|publisher=TransJakarta|language=id|access-date=2017-08-15}}</ref> [[Rickshaw]]s such as ''bajaj'' and ''becak'' and [[share taxi]]s such as ''Angkot'' and ''Metromini'' are a regular sight in the country.
Most [[Rail transport in Indonesia|railways]] are in Java, used for freight and passenger transport, such as local commuter rail services (mainly in [[KRL Commuterline|Jakarta]] and [[KRL Commuterline Yogyakarta–Solo|Yogyakarta–Solo]]) complementing the [[Rail transport in Indonesia|inter-city rail network]] in several cities. In the late 2010s, Jakarta and Palembang were the first cities in Indonesia to have [[rapid transit]] systems, with more planned for other cities in the future.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.overtureglobal.io/story/at-last-light-rail-comes-to-jakarta|title=At Last, Light Rail Comes to Jakarta|last=Coca|first= Nithin|publisher=Overture|date=2019-04-14|access-date=2019-11-22|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122052504/https://www.overtureglobal.io/story/at-last-light-rail-comes-to-jakarta|archive-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> In 2015, the government announced a plan to build a [[High-speed rail in Indonesia|high-speed rail]], which would be the first in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/south-east-asias-first-high-speed-rail-ready-for-construction-china-railway-corp|title=South-east Asia's first high-speed rail in Indonesia ready for construction: China Railway Corp|newspaper=The Straits Times|date=2018-07-02|access-date=2018-09-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711162201/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/south-east-asias-first-high-speed-rail-ready-for-construction-china-railway-corp|archive-date=2018-07-11}}</ref>
Indonesia's largest airport, [[Soekarno–Hatta International Airport]], is among the busiest in the Southern Hemisphere, [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|serving 54 million passengers in 2019]]. [[Ngurah Rai International Airport]] and [[Juanda International Airport]] are the country's second-and third-busiest airport, respectively. [[Garuda Indonesia]], the country's flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance [[SkyTeam]]. The [[Port of Tanjung Priok]] is the busiest and most advanced Indonesian port,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21693404-after-decades-underinvestment-infrastructure-spending-picking-up-last|title=The 13,466-island problem|newspaper=The Economist|date=2016-02-27|access-date=2017-06-16}}</ref> handling more than 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.
{{clear}}
=== Energy ===
{{Main|Energy in Indonesia}}
[[File:Pltb-sidrap.jpg|thumb|Sidrap wind farm, Indonesia's first wind power plant, in [[Sidrap Regency]], [[South Sulawesi]]]]
In 2019, Indonesia produced {{convert|17.059|e15Btu|TWh|lk=on|order=flip|abbr=off}} and consumed {{convert|8.043|e15Btu|TWh|order=flip|abbr=off}} worth of energy.<ref name="USEIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/country.php?iso=IDN|title=Overview: Indonesia|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|date=2021-09-24|access-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> The country has substantial energy resources, including {{convert|22|e9oilbbl|e9m3|abbr=off}} of conventional oil and gas reserves (of which about 4 billion barrels are recoverable), 8 billion barrels of oil-equivalent of coal-based methane (CBM) resources, and 28 billion tonnes of recoverable coal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey%20Offices/Indonesia/PDFs/Ten_ideas_to_reshape_Indonesias_energy_sector.ashx|title=Ten ideas to reshape Indonesia's energy sector|last1=Budiman|first1=Arief|last2=Das|first2=Kaushik|last3=Mohammad|first3=Azam|last4=Tee Tan|first4=Khoon|last5=Tonby|first5=Oliver|publisher=McKinsey&Company|date=September 2014|access-date=2015-03-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330035251/http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey%20Offices/Indonesia/PDFs/Ten_ideas_to_reshape_Indonesias_energy_sector.ashx|archive-date=2015-03-30}}</ref>
In late 2020, Indonesia's total national installed power generation capacity stands at 72,750.72 MW.<ref>{{cite book|date=September 2020|title=Statistik Ketenagalistrikan 2020|url=https://gatrik.esdm.go.id/assets/uploads/download_index/files/8f7e7-20211110-statistik-2020-rev03.pdf|publisher=Directorate General of Electricity|language=id|page=7|edition=33|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203081054/https://gatrik.esdm.go.id/assets/uploads/download_index/files/8f7e7-20211110-statistik-2020-rev03.pdf|archive-date=2022-12-03}}</ref> Although reliance on domestic coal and imported oil has increased between 2010 and 2019,<ref name="USEIA"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gielen|first1= Dolf|last2=Saygin|first2= Deger|last3=Rigter|first3= Jasper|date=March 2017|title=Renewable Energy Prospects: Indonesia, a REmap analysis|journal=International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)|isbn=978-92-95111-19-6}}</ref> Indonesia has seen progress in renewable energy, with hydropower and geothermal being the most abundant sources that account for more than 8% in the country's energy mix.<ref name="USEIA"/> A prime example of the former is the country's largest dam, [[Jatiluhur Dam|Jatiluhur]], which has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW that feeds into the Java grid managed by the State Electricity Company (''[[Perusahaan Listrik Negara]]'', PLN). Furthermore, Indonesia has the potential for solar, wind, biomass and ocean energy,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pwc.com/id/en/energy-utilities-mining/assets/power/power-guide-2017.pdf|title=Power in Indonesia 2017|publisher=PwC|date=November 2017|access-date=2018-09-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913064347/https://www.pwc.com/id/en/energy-utilities-mining/assets/power/power-guide-2017.pdf|archive-date=2018-09-13}}</ref> although as of 2021, power generation from these sources remain small.
=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in Indonesia}}
[[File:STS-41-B Palapa B-2 deployment.jpg|thumb|[[Palapa]] satellite launch in 1984|alt=]]
Government expenditure on research and development is relatively low (0.3% of GDP in 2019),<ref>{{cite book|last=Huda|first= Nur; Pawennei, Irsan; Ratri, Andhina; L. Taylor, Veronica|date=2020-12-01|title=Making Indonesia's Research and Development Better|url=https://www.ksi-indonesia.org/assets/uploads/original/2021/02/ksi-1613637314.pdf|publisher=Centre for Innovation Policy and Governance|page=53|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928070135/https://www.ksi-indonesia.org/assets/uploads/original/2021/02/ksi-1613637314.pdf|archive-date=2021-09-28}}</ref> and Indonesia only ranked 87th (out of 132 economies) on the 2021 [[Global Innovation Index]] report.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dutta|first= Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; León Rivera, Lorena; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha|date=2021-09-20|title=Global Innovation Index 2021: Tracking Innovation through the COVID-19 Crisis|url=https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/gii-2021-report|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|page=94|edition=14}}</ref> Historical examples of scientific and technological developments include the paddy cultivation technique [[Terrace (agriculture)|''terasering'']], which is common in Southeast Asia, and the [[pinisi]] boats by the [[Bugis]] and [[Makassar people]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kastenmarine.com/phinisi_history.htm|title=History of the Indonesian Pinisi|last=Kasten|first= Michael|access-date=2016-12-09|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209081906/http://www.kastenmarine.com/phinisi_history.htm|archive-date=2016-12-09}}</ref> In the 1980s, Indonesian engineer [[Tjokorda Raka Sukawati]] invented a road construction technique named [[Sosrobahu]] that later became widely used in several countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/12/11/man-1000-shoulders.html|title=Man of 1000 shoulders|last=Sertori|first= Trisha|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2014-12-11|access-date=2015-03-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320110612/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/12/11/man-1000-shoulders.html|archive-date=2015-03-20}}</ref> The country is also an active producer of passenger trains and freight wagons with its state-owned company, the [[Industri Kereta Api|Indonesian Railway Industry]] (INKA), and has exported trains abroad.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.tempo.co/read/news/2017/02/04/056843078/INKA-to-Manufacture-Trains-for-Export-to-Bangladesh-Sri-Lanka|title=INKA to Manufacture Trains for Export to Bangladesh, Sri Lanka|last=Rika Stevani|first= Louis|publisher=Tempo|date=2017-02-04|access-date=2018-01-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115032449/https://en.tempo.co/read/news/2017/02/04/056843078/INKA-to-Manufacture-Trains-for-Export-to-Bangladesh-Sri-Lanka|archive-date=2018-01-15}}</ref>
Indonesia has a long history of developing military and small commuter aircraft. It is the only country in Southeast Asia to build and produce aircraft. The state-owned [[Indonesian Aerospace|Indonesian Aerospace company]] (''PT. Dirgantara Indonesia'') has provided components for [[Boeing]] and [[Airbus]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://properti.kompas.com/read/2011/10/26/08061555/presiden.kunjungi.pt.dirgantara.indonesia.|title=President Visits PT Dirgantara Indonesia|publisher=Kompas|last=Liu|first= Hindra|date=2011-10-26|access-date=2011-05-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513132842/https://properti.kompas.com/read/2011/10/26/08061555/presiden.kunjungi.pt.dirgantara.indonesia.|archive-date=2021-05-13}}</ref> The company also collaborated with [[EADS CASA]] of Spain to develop the [[CASA/IPTN CN-235|CN-235]], which has been used by several countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://finance.detik.com/industri/3135372/ptdi-ekspor-40-unit-pesawat-terlaris-cn235|title=PTDI Ekspor 40 Unit Pesawat, Terlaris CN235|last=Dwi Sutianto|first= Feby|publisher=detikFinance|date=2016-02-05|language=id|access-date=2017-08-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815175446/https://finance.detik.com/industri/3135372/ptdi-ekspor-40-unit-pesawat-terlaris-cn235|archive-date=2017-08-15}}</ref> Former President [[B. J. Habibie]] played a vital role in this achievement.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/01/30/habibie-receives-honorary-doctorate.html|title=Habibie receives honorary doctorate|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2010-01-30|access-date=2016-03-05|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305072336/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/01/30/habibie-receives-honorary-doctorate.html|archive-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> Indonesia has also joined the [[South Korea]]n programme to manufacture the 4.5-generation fighter jet [[KAI KF-21 Boramae]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/kf-x-paper-pushing-or-peer-fighter-program-010647/|title=KF-X Fighter: Korea's Future Homegrown Jet|publisher=Defense Industry Daily|date=2017-11-21|access-date=2017-11-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123011721/https://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/kf-x-paper-pushing-or-peer-fighter-program-010647/|archive-date=2017-11-23}}</ref>
Indonesia has a space programme and space agency, the [[National Institute of Aeronautics and Space]] (''Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional'', LAPAN). In the 1970s, Indonesia became the first developing country to operate a satellite system called [[Palapa]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/08/archives/indonesian-satellite-to-be-launched-communications-craft-is-first.html|title=Indonesian Satellite to Be Launched|last=Mcelheny|first= Victor K.|newspaper=The New York Times|date=1976-07-08|access-date=2018-08-02|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802050737/https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/08/archives/indonesian-satellite-to-be-launched-communications-craft-is-first.html|archive-date=2018-08-02}}</ref> a series of communication satellites owned by [[Indosat]]. The first satellite, PALAPA A1, was launched on 8 July 1976 from the [[Kennedy Space Center]] in Florida, United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spacejournal.ohio.edu/issue8/his_marwah3.html|title=Planning and Development of Indonesia's Domestic Communications Satellite System PALAPA|publisher=Online Journal of Space Communication|date=2005|access-date=2015-05-18|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518111302/http://spacejournal.ohio.edu/issue8/his_marwah3.html|archive-date=2015-05-18}}</ref> {{As of|2019}}, Indonesia has launched 18 satellites for various purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.n2yo.com/satellites/?c=INDO&t=country|title=Satellites by countries and organizations: Indonesia|publisher=N2YO|access-date=2019-11-20}}</ref>
=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Indonesia}}[[File:Borobudur-Nothwest-view.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Borobudur]] in [[Central Java]], the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd.|date=2003|location=Melbourne|pages=211–215|isbn=978-1-74059-154-6|last=Elliott|first= Mark}}</ref>]]
[[Tourism in Indonesia|Tourism]] contributed around {{currency|9.8 billion|USD|passthrough=yes}} to GDP in 2020, and in the previous year, Indonesia received 15.4 million visitors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/reports/travel-and-tourism-development-index-2021/explore-the-data#report-nav|title=Travel and Tourism Development Index 2021 Edition - Interactive Data and Economy Profiles|publisher=World Economic Forum|date=2021|access-date=2022-12-26|url-status=live}}</ref> Overall, China, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, and Japan are the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/indicator/16/327/3/jumlah-kedatangan-wisatawan-mancanegara-ke-indonesia-menurut-negara-tempat-tinggal.html|title=Number of International Tourist Arrivals to Indonesia by Country of Residence|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|date=2002–2019|access-date=2020-12-06|language=id}}</ref> Since 2011, ''Wonderful Indonesia'' has been the country's international marketing campaign slogan to promote tourism.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/01/06/tourism-ministry-set-launch-%E2%80%98wonderful-indonesia%E2%80%99-campaign.html|title=Tourism Ministry set to launch 'Wonderful Indonesia' campaign|last=Erwida|first= Maulia|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2011-01-06|access-date=2014-03-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312211940/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/01/06/tourism-ministry-set-launch-%E2%80%98wonderful-indonesia%E2%80%99-campaign.html|archive-date=2014-03-12}}</ref>
[[File:Raja Ampat 2.jpg|right|thumb|[[Raja Ampat Islands]], [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]], has the highest recorded level of diversity in marine life, according to [[Conservation International]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/09/indonesia/doubilet-text|title=Indonesia Undersea|last=Doubilet|first= David|magazine=National Geographic|date=September 2007|access-date=2009-08-06|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806040153/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/09/indonesia/doubilet-text|archive-date=2009-08-06}}</ref>]]
Nature and culture are prime attractions of Indonesian tourism. The country has a well-preserved natural ecosystem with rainforests stretching over about 57% of Indonesia's land (225 million acres). Forests on Sumatra and Kalimantan are examples of popular destinations, such as the Orangutan wildlife reserve. Moreover, Indonesia has one of the world's longest coastlines, measuring {{convert|54716|km|0}}. The ancient [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] temples, as well as [[Toraja]] and [[Bali]] with their traditional festivities, are some of the popular destinations for cultural tourism.<ref name="pariwisata">{{cite book|title=Informasi Pariwisata Nusantara|language=id|publisher=[[Ministry of Tourism (Indonesia)|Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia]]|year=2014|location=Jakarta|type=Not for sale}}</ref>
Indonesia has [[List of World Heritage Sites in Indonesia|nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites]], including the [[Komodo National Park]] and the [[Ombilin Coal Mine|Sawahlunto Coal Mine]]; and a further 19 in a tentative list that includes [[Bunaken National Park]] and [[Raja Ampat Islands]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/id|title=Indonesia – Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=2016-11-27}}</ref> Other attractions include specific points in Indonesian history, such as the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in the [[old town]]s of [[Kota Tua Jakarta|Jakarta]] and [[Dutch architecture in Semarang|Semarang]] and the [[List of palaces in Indonesia|royal palaces]] of [[Pagaruyung Palace|Pagaruyung]], [[Ubud Palace|Ubud]], and [[Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat|Yogyakarta]].<ref name="pariwisata" />
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Indonesia|Indonesians}}
{{See also|List of Indonesian cities by population|List of metropolitan areas in Indonesia}}
[[File:Indonesia metropolitan areas labeled map.svg|thumb|Indonesia's ten metropolitan areas labeled with their populations]]
The [[2020 Indonesian census|2020 census]] recorded [[Demographics of Indonesia|Indonesia's population]] as 270.2 million, the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|fourth largest in the world]], with a moderately high population growth rate of 1.25%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://waspada.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=182106:fifty-years-needed-to-bring-population-growth-to-zero&catid=30:english-news&Itemid=101|title=Fifty years needed to bring population growth to zero|publisher=Waspada Online|date=2011-03-19|access-date=2011-05-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510014541/http://waspada.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=182106:fifty-years-needed-to-bring-population-growth-to-zero&catid=30:english-news&Itemid=101|archive-date=2011-05-10}}</ref> [[Java]] is the world's most populous island,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-population-island|title=Highest population, island|publisher=Guinness World Records|access-date=2017-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606183647/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-population-island|archive-date=2017-06-06|url-status=live}}</ref> where 56% of the country's population lives.<ref name="2020census">{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf|page=9|publisher=Statistics Indonesia|title=Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020|language=id|date=2021-01-21|access-date=2021-01-21|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122154418/https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf|archive-date=2021-01-22}}</ref> The population density is 141 people per km<sup>2</sup> (365 per sq mi),<ref name="2020census" /> ranking 88th in the world, although Java has a population density of 1,067 people per km<sup>2</sup> (2,435 per sq mi). In 1961, the first post-colonial census recorded a total of 97 million people.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQbd3-G6riUC|title=Population Trends in Indonesia|last=Nitisastro|first= Widjojo|publisher=Equinox Publishing|via=Google Books|page=268|date=2006|access-date=2015-09-05|isbn=9789793780436}}</ref> It is expected to grow to around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_DataBooklet.pdf|title=World Population Prospect: 2017 Revision|publisher=United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs – Population Division|date=2017-06-21|access-date=2017-12-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220083223/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_DataBooklet.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-20}}</ref> The country currently possesses a relatively young population, with a median age of 30.2 years (2017 estimate).<ref name="CIA" />
The spread of the population is uneven throughout the archipelago, with a varying habitats and levels of [[List of Indonesian provinces by Human Development Index|development]], ranging from the [[megacity]] of Jakarta to [[Uncontacted peoples|uncontacted tribes]] in Papua.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191|title=BBC: First contact with isolated tribes?|publisher=Survival International|date=2007-01-25|access-date=2017-07-30|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730073348/http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191|archive-date=2017-07-30}}</ref> As of 2017, about 54.7% of the population lives in [[urban area]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-urban|title=Share of people living in urban areas, 2017|publisher=Our World in Data|date=2017|access-date=2020-09-05}}</ref> Jakarta is the country's [[primate city]] and the [[List of largest cities|second-most populous urban area globally]], with over 34 million residents.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demographia World Urban Areas, 15th Annual Edition|url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|publisher=[[Demographia]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207210003/http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|archive-date=2020-02-07|date=April 2019}}</ref> About 8 million [[Overseas Indonesians|Indonesians live overseas]]; most settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, South Africa, Singapore, Hong Kong, the United States, and Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fois.or.id/tapping-the-indonesian-diaspora-potential-97baef4e98ba?gi=fa637167c9c7|title=Tapping the Indonesian Diaspora Potential|last=Krisetya|first= Beltsazar|publisher=Forum for International Studies|date=2016-09-14|access-date=2017-12-20|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220084622/https://fois.or.id/tapping-the-indonesian-diaspora-potential-97baef4e98ba?gi=fa637167c9c7|archive-date=2017-12-20}}</ref>
{{Largest cities of Indonesia|class=info}}
=== Ethnic groups and languages ===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Native Indonesians|Languages of Indonesia}}
[[File:Indonesia Ethnic Groups Map English.svg|upright=1.5|thumb|A map of ethnic groups in Indonesia|alt=]]
Indonesia is an ethnically diverse country, with around 1,300 distinct native ethnic groups.<ref name="BPS" /> Most Indonesians are descended from [[Austronesian peoples]] whose languages had origins in [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]], which possibly originated in what is now [[Taiwan]]. Another major grouping is the [[Melanesians]], who inhabit eastern Indonesia (the [[Maluku Islands]], [[Western New Guinea]] and the eastern part of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]).{{sfn|Taylor|2003|pp=5–7}}{{sfn|Witton|2003|pp=139, 181, 251, 435}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dawson|first1= B.|last2=Gillow|first2= J.|title=The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia|publisher=Thames and Hudson Ltd.|year=1994|location=London|page=7|isbn=978-0-500-34132-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://gln.kemdikbud.go.id/glnsite/diaspora-melanesia-di-nusantara/|title=Diaspora Melanesia di Nusantara|access-date=2022-08-24|language=id|author1=Truman Simanjuntak|author2=Herawati Sudoyo|author3=Multamia R.M.T. Lauder|author4=Allan Lauder|author5=Ninuk Kleden Probonegoro|author6=Rovicky Dwi Putrohari|author7=Desy Pola Usmany|author8=Yudha P.N. Yapsenang|author9=Edward L. Poelinggomang|author10=Gregorius Neonbasu|publisher=Direktorat Sejarah, Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan|website=gln.kemdikbud.go.id|isbn=978-602-1289-19-8|year=2015}}</ref>
The [[Javanese people|Javanese]] are the largest ethnic group, constituting 40.2% of the population,<ref name="BPS" /> and are politically dominant.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kingsbury|first=Damien|title=Autonomy and Disintegration in Indonesia|publisher=Routledge|pages=131|isbn=0-415-29737-0|year=2003}}</ref> They are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java and also in sizeable numbers in most provinces. The [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] are the next largest group (15.4%), followed by [[Batak people|Batak]], [[Madurese people|Madurese]], [[Betawi people|Betawi]], [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], [[Bugis people|Bugis]] and [[Malay Indonesians|Malay]] people.{{efn|Small but significant populations of [[Overseas Chinese|ethnic Chinese]], [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indians]], Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.}} A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=256}}
The country's official language is [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], a variant of [[Malay language|Malay]] based on its [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige dialect]], which had been the archipelago's ''[[lingua franca]]'' for centuries. It was [[Youth Pledge|promoted by nationalists in the 1920s]] and achieved official status in 1945 under the name ''Bahasa Indonesia''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.languagetranslation.com/translation/languages/indonesian-translation4.html|title=The History of Indonesian|publisher=Language Translation, Inc.|access-date=2016-01-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043125/http://www.languagetranslation.com/translation/languages/indonesian-translation4.html|archive-date=2016-03-04}}</ref> Due to centuries-long contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences.{{efn|These influences include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Hindustani, Sanskrit, Tamil, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese and English.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dannyreviews.com/h/Indonesian_Language.html|title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society|last=Sneddon|first= James N.|publisher=University of South Wales Press Ltd.|date=April 2013|access-date=2018-01-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729003635/http://dannyreviews.com/h/Indonesian_Language.html|archive-date=2017-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Anwar|first= Khaidir|url=http://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_1976_num_12_1_1296|title=Minangkabau, Background of the main pioneers of modern standard Malay in Indonesia|journal=Archipel|year=1976|volume=12|pages=77–93|doi=10.3406/arch.1976.1296|access-date=2017-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|title=Language interference: Indonesian and English|last=Amerl|first= Ivana|publisher=MED Magazine|date=May 2006|access-date=2018-01-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729050607/http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|archive-date=2017-07-29}}</ref>}} Nearly every Indonesian speaks the language due to its widespread use in education, academics, communications, business, politics, and mass media. Most Indonesians also speak at least one of more than 700 local languages,<ref name="ethnologue">{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty-first edition|last1=Simons|first1=Gary F.|last2=Fennig|first2=Charles D.|publisher=SIL International|access-date=2018-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626224541/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages|archive-date=2019-06-26}}</ref> often as their first language. Most belong to the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]], while over 270 [[Papuan languages]] are spoken in eastern Indonesia.<ref name="ethnologue" /> Of these, [[Javanese language|Javanese]] is the most widely spoken<ref name="CIA" /> and has co-official status in the [[Special Region of Yogyakarta]].<ref>{{cite act|type=Regional Regulation|index=2|date=2021|legislature=[[List of governors of Yogyakarta|Governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta]]|title=Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa|url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/162614/perda-no-2-tahun-2021|language=id}}</ref>
In 1930, [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and other Europeans (''[[Totok]]''), Eurasians, and derivative people like the [[Indo people|Indos]], numbered 240,000 or 0.4% of the total population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/Content/NIDI/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf|title=The Demographic History of the Dutch in the East Indies|last=van Nimwegen|first= Nico|date=2002|publisher=Nederlands Interdisciplinair Demografisch Instituut|access-date=2011-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723103734/http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/Content/NIDI/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> Historically, they constituted only a tiny fraction of the native population and remain so today. Also, the Dutch language never had a substantial number of speakers or official status despite the Dutch presence for almost 350 years.{{sfn|Baker|Prys Jones|1998|p=202}} The small minorities that can speak it or [[Dutch-based creole languages]] fluently are the aforementioned ethnic groups and descendants of Dutch colonisers. This reflected the Dutch colonial empire's primary purpose, which was commercial exchange as opposed to sovereignty over homogeneous landmasses.<ref name=Ward>{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Kerry|title=Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the Dutch East India Company|date=2009|pages=322–342|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-88586-7}}</ref> Today, there is some degree of fluency by either educated members of the oldest generation or legal professionals,{{sfn|Ammon|Dittmar|Mattheier|Trudgill|2006|p=2017}} as specific law codes are still only available in Dutch.{{sfn|Booij|1999|p=2}}
=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Indonesia}}
Despite guaranteeing religious freedom in the constitution,<ref>Chapter XA, Article 28E, 1st Clause of the 1945 Constitution.</ref><ref name="UUD45" /> the government officially recognises only [[Religion in Indonesia|six religions]]: [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]], [[Protestantism in Indonesia|Protestantism]], [[Roman Catholicism in Indonesia|Roman Catholicism]], [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hinduism]], [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]], and [[Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia|Confucianism]],<ref>{{cite book|surname=Shah|given=Dian A. H.|year=2017|title=Constitutions, Religion and Politics in Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ek4DwAAQBAJ&q=Constitutions%2C%20Religion%20and%20Politics%20in%20Asia%3A%20Indonesia%2C%20Malaysia&pg=PR6|isbn=978-1-107-18334-6}}</ref><ref name="Marshall">{{cite journal|last=Marshall|first=Paul|date=2018|title=The Ambiguities of Religious Freedom in Indonesia|journal=The Review of Faith & International Affairs|volume=16|issue=1|pages=85–96|doi=10.1080/15570274.2018.1433588|doi-access=free}}</ref> with [[indigenous religions]] only partly acknowledged.<ref name="Marshall" /> With 231 million adherents (86.7%) in 2018, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,{{sfn|Ricklefs|2001|p=379}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|title=Data Based on the Number of Followers According to Religion|publisher=[[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)]]|date=2018|access-date=2021-05-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903221250/https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|archive-date=2020-09-03}}</ref> with [[Sunni Islam|Sunnis]] being the majority (99%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-sunni-and-shia/|title=Sunni and Shia Muslims|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=2011-01-27|access-date=2017-05-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506114552/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-sunni-and-shia/|archive-date=2017-05-06}}</ref> The [[Shia Islam in Indonesia|Shias]] and [[Ahmadiyya in Indonesia|Ahmadis]], respectively, constitute 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of Muslims.<ref name="Marshall" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/268976.pdf|title=2016 Indonesia International Religious Freedom Report|author=((Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor))|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2017|access-date=2017-12-19|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219044652/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/268976.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-19}}</ref> About 10% of Indonesians are [[Christians]], who form the [[Christianity in Indonesia|majority in several provinces in eastern Indonesia]].<ref>{{Citation |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=2014 |title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2014, Indonesia
|publisher=U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm?year=2014&dlid=238298 |access-date=28 December 2015 }}</ref> Most [[Hindu]]s are [[Balinese people|Balinese]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Oey|first= Eric|title=Bali|place=Singapore|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1997|edition=3rd|isbn=978-962-593-028-2}}</ref> and most [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] are [[Chinese Indonesians]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFNKQcvGNSAC&pg=PA98|title=Ethnic Chinese in Contemporary Indonesia|editor=Suryadinata, Leo|year=2008|isbn=9789812308351}}</ref>
[[File:Salah Satu Upacara Besar Di Pura Agung Besakih.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Hindu]] prayer ceremony at [[Besakih Temple]] in [[Bali]], the only Indonesian province where [[Balinese Hinduism|Hinduism]] is the predominant religion]]
The natives of the Indonesian archipelago originally practised indigenous [[animism]] and [[dynamism (metaphysics)|dynamism]], beliefs that are common to [[Austronesian peoples]].<ref name="Ooi" /> They worshipped and revered ancestral spirit and believed that supernatural spirits (''[[hyang]]'') might inhabit certain places such as large trees, stones, forests, mountains, or sacred sites.<ref name="Ooi">{{cite book|title=Southeast Asia: A historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor (3 volume set)|editor=Ooi, Keat Gin|publisher=ABC-CLIO|date=2004|page=177|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2}}</ref> Examples of Indonesian native belief systems include the [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] [[Sunda Wiwitan]], [[Dayak people|Dayak]]'s [[Kaharingan]], and the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] [[Kejawèn]]. They have significantly impacted how other faiths are practised, evidenced by a large proportion of people—such as the Javanese [[abangan]], [[Balinese Hinduism|Balinese Hindus]], and Dayak Christians—practising a less [[orthodoxy|orthodox]], [[syncretism|syncretic]] form of their religion.<ref>Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, ''Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life'', PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp. 15–18 {{ISBN|979-605-406-X}}, {{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2003/23829.htm|title=2003 International Religious Freedom Report|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2003|access-date=2012-01-13}}</ref>
[[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hindu]] influences reached the archipelago as early as the first century CE.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]], The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in {{Google books|X7YfAAAAIAAJ|Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions|pages=1–54}}</ref> The [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] [[Kingdoms of Sunda|Kingdom]] of [[Salakanagara]] in western Java around 130 was the first historically recorded [[Greater India|Indianised]] kingdom in the archipelago.<ref>Darsa, Undang A. 2004. "Kropak 406; Carita Parahyangan dan Fragmen Carita Parahyangan", Makalah disampaikan dalam Kegiatan Bedah Naskah Kuna yang diselenggarakan oleh Balai Pengelolaan Museum Negeri Sri Baduga. Bandung-Jatinangor: Fakultas Sastra Universitas Padjadjaran: hlm. 1–23.</ref> [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhism]] arrived around the 6th century,<ref>{{cite web|title=Buddhism in Indonesia|work=Buddha Dharma Education Association|publisher=Buddha Dharma Education Association|year=2005|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/indo-txt.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510074118/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/indo-txt.htm|archive-date=2019-05-10|access-date=2006-10-03}}</ref> and its history in Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism, as some empires based on Buddhism had their roots around the same period. The archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful and influential Hindu and Buddhist empires such as [[Majapahit]], [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra]], [[Srivijaya]], and Mataram. Though no longer a majority, Hinduism and Buddhism remain to have a substantial influence on Indonesian culture.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rachman|first1= T.|date=2013|title='Indianization' of Indonesia in an Historical Sketch|journal=International Journal of Nusantara Islam|volume=1|issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/india/global-influence-of-hinduism/influence-hinduism-buddhism-indonesian-culture/|title=Influence of Hinduism and Buddhism on Indonesian culture|publisher=Sanskriti Magazine|last=Sedyawati|first= Edi|date=2014-12-19|access-date=2020-12-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415194440/https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/india/global-influence-of-hinduism/influence-hinduism-buddhism-indonesian-culture/|archive-date=2017-04-15}}</ref>
[[File:Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|[[Baiturrahman Grand Mosque]] in [[Banda Aceh]], [[Aceh]]. The [[spread of Islam in Indonesia]] began in the region.]]
[[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]] was introduced by [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] traders of the [[Shafi'i]] [[Madhhab|school]] as well as [[Sufism|Sufi]] traders from the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[South Arabia|southern Arabia]] as early as the 8th century CE.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 2: M–Z|last=Martin|first=Richard C.|year=2004|publisher=Macmillan}}</ref><ref>Gerhard Bowering et al. (2012), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}, pp. xvi</ref> For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, resulting in a distinct form of Islam (''[[pesantren|santri]]'').{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=12–14}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia – Bhineka Tunggal Ika|publisher=Centre Universitaire d'Informatique|url=http://cui.unige.ch/~luthi/download/indo.html|access-date=2006-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060914023845/http://cui.unige.ch/~luthi/download/indo.html|archive-date=2006-09-14}}</ref> Trade, [[Islamic missionary activity]] such as by the [[Wali Sanga]] and Chinese explorer [[Zheng He]], and military campaigns by [[Sultan#Southeast and East Asia|several sultanates]] helped accelerate the [[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|spread of Islam]].<ref>Taufiq Tanasaldy, Regime Change and Ethnic Politics in Indonesia, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-90-04-26373-4}}</ref><ref>Gerhard Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13484-0}}</ref> By the end of the 16th century, it had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion of [[Java#Religion|Java]] and [[Sumatra#Religion|Sumatra]].
[[File:Jakarta Cathedral During Mass.jpg|thumb|left|[[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] at the [[St. Mary of the Assumption Cathedral, Jakarta|Jakarta Cathedral]]|alt=]]
[[Catholic Church in Indonesia|Catholicism]] was brought by Portuguese traders and missionaries such as [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[Francis Xavier]], who visited and baptised several thousand locals.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=25, 26, 28}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sydneycatholic.org/events/pilgrimageofgrace/about.shtml|title=About St Francis Xavier|publisher=Catholic Archdiocese of Sydney|access-date=2018-07-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116164225/https://www.sydneycatholic.org/events/pilgrimageofgrace/about.shtml|archive-date=2012-11-16}}</ref> Its spread faced difficulty due to the Dutch East India Company policy of banning the religion and the Dutch hostility due to the [[Eighty Years' War]] against Catholic Spain's rule. [[Protestantism in Indonesia|Protestantism]] is mostly a result of [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] and [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] missionary efforts during the Dutch colonial era.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=28, 62}}{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=22}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Goh|first= Robbie B.H.|title=Christianity in Southeast Asia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|page=80|isbn=978-981-230-297-7|year=2005}}</ref> Although they are the most common branch, there is a multitude of other denominations elsewhere in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reformiert-online.net/weltweit/64_eng.php|title=Indonesia – Asia|publisher=Reformed Online|access-date=2006-12-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061205042413/http://reformiert-online.net/weltweit/64_eng.php|archive-date=2006-12-05}}</ref>
There was a [[History of the Jews in Indonesia|small Jewish presence in the archipelago]] until 1945, mostly Dutch and some Baghdadi Jews. Since most left after Indonesia proclaimed independence, [[Judaism]] was never accorded official status, and only a tiny number of Jews remain today, mostly in Jakarta and Surabaya.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bh.org.il/jewish-community-indonesia/|title=The Jewish Community in Indonesia|author=Ayala Klemperer-Markman|translator=Julie Ann Levy|publisher=Beit Hatfutsot|access-date=2020-03-12|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804011540/https://www.bh.org.il/jewish-community-indonesia/|archive-date=2019-08-04}}</ref>
At the national and local level, Indonesia's political leadership and civil society groups have played a crucial role in interfaith relations, both positively and negatively. The invocation of the first principle of Indonesia's philosophical foundation, Pancasila<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/86.htm|title=Pancasila|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|date=2017-02-03|access-date=2017-02-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205010135/http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/86.htm|archive-date=2017-02-05}}</ref>{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=117}} (i.e. the belief in the one and only God), often serves as a reminder of religious tolerance,<ref>{{cite book|surname=Madjid|given=Nurcholish|title=Islamic Roots of Modern Pluralism: Indonesian Experience|publisher=Studia Islamika: Indonesian Journal for Islamic Studies|year=1994}}</ref> though instances of intolerance have occurred.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-04-16 |title=The struggle of religious minorities in Indonesia |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-22165159 |access-date=2023-03-01}}</ref><ref name="RIP" /> An overwhelming majority of Indonesians consider religion to be essential and an integral part of life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/how-religious-commitment-varies-by-country-among-people-of-all-ages/|title=How religious commitment varies by country among people of all ages|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=2018-06-13|access-date=2018-11-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827174002/http://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/how-religious-commitment-varies-by-country-among-people-of-all-ages/|archive-date=2018-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patheos.com/blogs/tippling/2018/10/28/religion-in-indonesia-an-insight/|title=Religion in Indonesia: An Insight|last=Pearce|first= Jonathan MS|publisher=Patheos|date=2018-10-28|access-date=2018-11-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028170242/https://www.patheos.com/blogs/tippling/2018/10/28/religion-in-indonesia-an-insight/|archive-date=2018-10-28}}</ref>
=== Education and health ===
{{Main|Education in Indonesia|Health in Indonesia}}
[[File:ITB 1.jpg|thumb|[[Bandung Institute of Technology]] in West Java|alt=]]
Education is compulsory for 12 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.worldbank.org/education/awakening-indonesia-s-golden-generation-extending-compulsory-education-9-12-years|title=Awakening Indonesia's Golden Generation: Extending Compulsory Education from 9 to 12 Years|last1=al-Samarrai|first1=Samer|last2=Cerdan-Infantes|first2=Pedro|publisher=The World Bank Blog|date=2013-03-09|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151231/http://blogs.worldbank.org/education/awakening-indonesia-s-golden-generation-extending-compulsory-education-9-12-years|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> Parents can choose between state-run, non-sectarian schools or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools, supervised by the ministries of Education and Religion, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/jais/volume/docs/vol14/v14_03_tan_047-062.pdf|title=Educative Tradition and Islamic Schools in Indonesia|last=Tan|first= Charlene|publisher=Nanyang Technological University|date=2014|access-date=2016-03-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327141040/https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/jais/volume/docs/vol14/v14_03_tan_047-062.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-27}}</ref> Private international schools that do not follow the [[Education in Indonesia#2013 curriculum|national curriculum]] are also available. The enrolment rate is 93% for primary education, 79% for secondary education, and 36% for tertiary education (2018).<ref name="UIS">{{cite web|url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/id|title=Indonesia|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics|date=2016-11-27|access-date=2020-09-05}}</ref> The literacy rate is 96% (2018), and the government spends about 3.6% of GDP (2015) on education.<ref name="UIS" /> In 2018, there were 4,670 higher educational institutions in Indonesia, with most (74%) located in Sumatra and Java.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Huda|first1= Nur|last2=Pawennei|first2=Irsan|last3=Ratri|first3=Andhina|last4=Taylor|first4=Veronica L.|date=2020-12-01|title=Making Indonesia's Research and Development Better|url=https://www.ksi-indonesia.org/assets/uploads/original/2021/02/ksi-1613637314.pdf|publisher=Centre for Innovation Policy and Governance|page=36|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928070135/https://www.ksi-indonesia.org/assets/uploads/original/2021/02/ksi-1613637314.pdf|archive-date=2021-09-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asiasentinel.com/p/indonesia-unequal-higher-education|title=Indonesia's Unequal Higher Education|website=Asia Sentinel|date=2018-05-04|access-date=2020-12-03|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924060508/https://www.asiasentinel.com/p/indonesia-unequal-higher-education|archive-date=2020-09-24}}</ref> According to the [[QS World University Rankings]], Indonesia's top universities are the [[University of Indonesia]], [[Gadjah Mada University]] and the [[Bandung Institute of Technology]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/indonesia?country=[ID]&sorting=[rankings_htol|title=List of Universities in Indonesia|publisher=[[QS World University Rankings]]|access-date=2022-06-12}}</ref>
Government expenditure on healthcare was about 3.3% of GDP in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.searo.who.int/entity/health_situation_trends/cp_ino.pdf?ua=1|title=2018 Health SDG Profile: Indonesia|publisher=World Health Organization|date=July 2018|access-date=2018-12-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206041612/http://www.searo.who.int/entity/health_situation_trends/cp_ino.pdf?ua=1|archive-date=2018-12-06}}</ref> As part of an attempt to achieve universal health care, the government launched the National Health Insurance (''[[Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional]]'', JKN) in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/01/02/birth-indonesia-s-medicare-fasten-your-seatbelts.html|title=Birth of Indonesia's 'Medicare': Fasten your seatbelts|last=Thabrany|first=Hasbullah|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2014-01-02|access-date=2018-08-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110053307/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/01/02/birth-indonesia-s-medicare-fasten-your-seatbelts.html|archive-date=2014-01-10}}</ref> It includes coverage for a range of services from the public and also private firms that have opted to join the scheme. Despite remarkable improvements in recent decades, such as rising life expectancy (from 62.3 years in 1990 to 71.7 years in 2019)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Life expectancy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy|access-date=2020-09-05|website=Our World in Data}}</ref> and declining child mortality (from 84 deaths per 1,000 births in 1990 to 23.9 deaths in 2019),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Child mortality rate|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/child-mortality-igme|access-date=2021-11-16|website=Our World in Data}}</ref> challenges remain, including maternal and child health, low [[air quality]], [[malnutrition]], high rate of [[smoking]], and infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite journal|title=On the road to universal health care in Indonesia, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016|journal=The Lancet|author1=Nafsiah Mboi|author2=Indra Murty Surbakti|author3=Indang Trihandini|author4=Iqbal Elyazar|author5=Karen Houston Smith|author6=Pungkas Bahjuri Ali|author7=Soewarta Kosen|author8=Kristin Flemons|author9=Sarah E Ray|author10=Jackie Cao|author11=Scott D Glenn|author12=Molly K Miller-Petrie|author13=Meghan D Mooney|author14=Jeffrey L Ried|author15=Dina Nur Anggraini Ningrum|author16=Fachmi Idris|author17=Kemal N Siregar|author18=Pandu Harimurti|author19=Robert S Bernstein|author20=Tikki Pangestu|author21=Yuwono Sidharta|author22=Mohsen Naghavi|author23=Christopher J L Murray|author24=Simon I Hay|display-authors=5|volume=392|issue=10147|pages=581–591|year=2018|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30595-6|pmid=29961639|pmc=6099123}}</ref>
=== Issues ===
{{Main|Human rights in Indonesia}}
[[File:Jakarta riot 14 May 1998.jpg|thumb|Riots on the streets of Jakarta on 14 May 1998]]
In the economic sphere, there is a gap in wealth, unemployment rate, and health between densely populated islands and economic centres (such as [[Sumatra]] and [[Java]]) and sparsely populated, disadvantaged areas (such as [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] and [[Western New Guinea|Papua]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://papuaweb.org/dlib/s123/upton/_phd.pdf|title=The impact of migration on the people of Papua, Indonesia: A historical demographic analysis|last=Upton|first= Stuart|publisher=University of New South Wales|date=January 2009|access-date=2017-05-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510073548/http://papuaweb.org/dlib/s123/upton/_phd.pdf|archive-date=2017-05-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/08/indonesia-rising-divide|title=Indonesia's Rising Divide|publisher=World Bank|date=2015-12-07|access-date=2016-12-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214162710/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/08/indonesia-rising-divide|archive-date=2016-12-14}}</ref> This is created by a situation in which nearly 80% of Indonesia's population lives in the western parts of the archipelago<ref>{{cite web|url=https://crawford.anu.edu.au/acde/ip/pdf/lpem/2011/Zulfan_2011.pdf|title=Routine Violence in Java, Indonesia: Neo-Malthusian and Social Justice Perspectives|last1=Tadjoeddin|first1=Mohammad Zulfan|last2=Chowdury|first2=Anis|last3=Murshed|first3=Syed Mansoob|date=October 2010|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152048/https://crawford.anu.edu.au/acde/ip/pdf/lpem/2011/Zulfan_2011.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> and yet grows slower than the rest of the country.
In the social arena, numerous cases of racism and discrimination, especially [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|against Chinese Indonesians]] and [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuans]], have been well documented throughout Indonesia's history.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/06/16/black-lives-matter-papua-indonesia/|title=Black Lives Matter in Indonesia, Too|publisher=Foreign Policy|last=Varagur|first= Krithika|date=2020-06-16|access-date=2020-11-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622134847/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/06/16/black-lives-matter-papua-indonesia/|archive-date=2020-06-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/55a619124.html|title=Indonesia: Situation of Chinese-Indonesians, including Christians; treatment by society and authorities (2012 – April 2015)|publisher=Refworld|date=2015-04-02|access-date=2021-02-19|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814101752/https://www.refworld.org/docid/55a619124.html|archive-date=2015-08-14}}</ref> Such cases have sometimes led to violent conflicts, most notably the [[May 1998 riots of Indonesia|May 1998 riots]] and the [[Papua conflict]], which has continued since 1962. LGBT people also regularly face challenges. Although [[LGBT rights in Indonesia|LGBT issues]] have been relatively obscure, the 2010s (especially after 2016) has seen a rapid surge of [[anti-LGBT rhetoric]], putting LGBT Indonesians into a frequent subject of intimidation, discrimination, and even violence.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stapleton|first=Dan F.|date=2017-08-11|title=Will hardline Islamic attitudes stop Lombok becoming the 'new Bali'?|work=[[Financial Times]]|url=https://www.ft.com/content/d2c24350-7910-11e7-a3e8-60495fe6ca71|url-status=live|access-date=2022-05-01|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220422045550/https://www.ft.com/content/d2c24350-7910-11e7-a3e8-60495fe6ca71|archive-date=2022-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/its-ok-to-be-gay-in-indonesia-so-long-as-you-keep-it-quiet/a-6456222|title=It's OK to be gay in Indonesia so long as you keep it quiet|publisher=Deutsche Welle|date=2011-03-02|access-date=2020-11-19|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101200401/https://www.dw.com/en/its-ok-to-be-gay-in-indonesia-so-long-as-you-keep-it-quiet/a-6456222|archive-date=2018-01-01}}</ref> In addition, Indonesia has been reported to have sizeable numbers of [[child labor|child]] and [[forced labour]]ers, with the former being prevalent in the palm oil and tobacco industries, while the latter in the fishing industry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.equaltimes.org/slow-progress-in-the-fight-against|title=Slow progress in the fight against child labour in Indonesia|publisher=Equal Times|last=Villadiego|first= Laura|date=2018-04-25|access-date=2021-02-19|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120234321/https://www.equaltimes.org/slow-progress-in-the-fight-against|archive-date=2021-01-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Global Slavery Index 2018|url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/2018/findings/executive-summary/|publisher=Walk Free Foundation|date=2018-07-19}}</ref>
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Indonesia}} {{See also|National Intangible Cultural Heritage of Indonesia|Public holidays in Indonesia}}
The cultural history of the Indonesian archipelago spans more than two millennia. Influences from the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[mainland China]], the [[Middle East]], [[Europe]],<ref name="JForshee">{{cite web|url=http://demografi.bps.go.id/phpFileTree/bahan/kumpulan_tugas_mobilitas_pak_chotib/Kelompok_1/Referensi/Jill_Forshee_Culture_and_Customs_of_Indonesia_Culture_and_Customs_of_Asia__2006.pdf|title=Culture and Customs of Indonesia|last=Forshee|first=Jill|publisher=Greenwood Press|date=2006|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152700/http://demografi.bps.go.id/phpFileTree/bahan/kumpulan_tugas_mobilitas_pak_chotib/Kelompok_1/Referensi/Jill_Forshee_Culture_and_Customs_of_Indonesia_Culture_and_Customs_of_Asia__2006.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Henley|first= David|date=2015|encyclopedia=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism|pages=1–7|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781118663202.wberen460|chapter=Indonesia|isbn=978-1-118-66320-2}}</ref> [[Melanesians|Melanesian]] and [[Austronesian peoples]] have historically shaped the cultural, linguistic and religious makeup of the archipelago. As a result, modern-day Indonesia has a multicultural, multilingual and multi-ethnic society,<ref name="ethnologue" /><ref name="BPS" /> with a complex cultural mixture that differs significantly from the original indigenous cultures. Indonesia currently holds [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|twelve items of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage]], including a [[wayang]] puppet theatre, [[kris]], [[batik]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-batik-00170|title=Indonesian Batik|publisher=UNESCO|date=2009|access-date=2014-10-12}}</ref> [[pencak silat]], [[angklung]], [[gamelan]], and the three genres of traditional [[Balinese dance]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/indonesia-ID?info=elements-on-the-lists|title=Indonesia – Intangible heritage, cultural sector|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref>
=== Art and architecture ===
{{Main|Indonesian art|Architecture of Indonesia}}
{{See|Indonesian painting}}
[[File:Balinese Cockfighting.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional Balinese painting depicting [[cockfighting]]|alt=]]
Indonesian arts include both age-old art forms developed through centuries and recently developed [[contemporary art]]. Despite often displaying local ingenuity, Indonesian arts have absorbed foreign influences—most notably from [[India]], the [[Arab world]], [[China]] and [[Europe]], due to contacts and interactions facilitated, and often motivated by trade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expat.or.id/info/artshandicrafts-indonesia.html|title=Indonesian Arts and Crafts|publisher=Living in Indonesia: A site for expats|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227203136/http://www.expat.or.id/info/artshandicrafts-indonesia.html|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> Painting is an [[Balinese art|established and developed art in Bali]], where its people are famed for their artistry. Their painting tradition started as classical [[Kamasan]] or [[Wayang]] style visual narrative, derived from visual art discovered on ''[[Candi of Indonesia|candi]]'' bas reliefs in eastern Java.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aclhs-web-pro-1.ucc.usyd.edu.au/HEURIST_FILESTORE/balipaintings/Forgecataloguesinglefile.pdf|title=Balinese Traditional Paintings|last=Forge|first= Anthony|publisher=The Australian Museum|date=1978|access-date=2016-12-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220200212/http://aclhs-web-pro-1.ucc.usyd.edu.au/HEURIST_FILESTORE/balipaintings/Forgecataloguesinglefile.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-20}}</ref>
[[File:Traditional Toraja House.JPG|thumb|An avenue of [[Tongkonan]] houses in a [[Toraja]]n village, [[South Sulawesi]]|alt=]]
There have been numerous discoveries of [[Megalithic art|megalithic sculptures]] in Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indonesia.gr/indonesian-culture-arts-and-traditions/|title=Indonesian Culture; Arts and Tradition|publisher=Embassy of Indonesia, Athens|date=2010-09-30|access-date=2016-12-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226171504/http://indonesia.gr/indonesian-culture-arts-and-traditions/|archive-date=2016-12-26}}</ref> Subsequently, tribal art has flourished within the culture of [[Nias people|Nias]], [[Batak people|Batak]], [[Asmat people|Asmat]], [[Dayak people|Dayak]] and [[Toraja]].<ref>''Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia'' {{ISBN|978-0-8248-2924-7}} p. 113</ref><ref>''Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective : R.P. Soejono's Festschrift'' {{ISBN|979-26-2499-6}} pp. 298–299</ref> Wood and stone are common materials used as the media for sculpting among these tribes. Between the 8th and 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation developed refined stone sculpting art and architecture influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist [[Dharma|Dharmic]] civilisation. The temples of [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] are among the most famous examples of the practice.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592|title=Borobudur Temple Compounds|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010150711/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref>
As with the arts, Indonesian architecture has absorbed foreign influences that have brought cultural changes and profound effects on building styles and techniques. The most dominant has traditionally been [[Architecture of India|Indian]]; however, Chinese, Arab, and European influences have also been significant. Traditional carpentry, masonry, stone and woodwork techniques and decorations have thrived in [[vernacular architecture]], with numbers of traditional houses' (''[[rumah adat]]'') styles that have been developed. The traditional houses and settlements vary by ethnic group, and each has a specific custom and history.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indonesian Houses: Tradition and Transformation in Vernacular Architecture|editor1=Reimar Schefold|editor2=P. Nas|editor3=Gaudenz Domenig|page=5|publisher=NUS Press|year=2004|isbn=978-9971-69-292-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oup15S3lTDAC}}</ref> Examples include [[Toraja]]'s [[Tongkonan]], [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]]'s [[Rumah Gadang]] and [[Rangkiang]], Javanese style [[Pendopo]] pavilion with [[Joglo]] style roof, [[Dayak people|Dayak]]'s [[longhouse]]s, various [[Rumah Melayu|Malay houses]], [[Balinese architecture|Balinese houses]] and [[Balinese temple|temples]], and also different forms of [[rice barn]]s (''lumbung'').{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}
=== Music, dance and clothing ===
{{Main|Music of Indonesia|Dance in Indonesia|National costume of Indonesia}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Gamelan Player 1.JPG
| image2 = Angklung-arumba.jpg
| image3 = Tari Pendet.jpg
| image4 = Jaipongan Bunga Tanjung 02.jpg
| footer = Indonesian music and dance. '''Clockwise from top''': a [[gamelan]] player; [[Angklung]]; Sundanese [[Jaipongan]] Mojang Priangan dance; and Balinese [[Pendet]] dance.
}}
The music of Indonesia predates historical records. Various indigenous tribes incorporate chants and songs accompanied by musical instruments in their rituals. [[Angklung]], [[kacapi suling]], [[gong]], [[gamelan]], [[talempong]], [[kulintang]], and [[sasando]] are examples of traditional Indonesian instruments. The diverse world of Indonesian music genres results from the musical creativity of its people and subsequent cultural encounters with foreign influences. These include [[Qanbūs|gambus]] and [[qasida]] from the Middle East,<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Harnish|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Rasmussen|editor2-first=Anne|year=2011|title=Divine Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> [[keroncong]] from Portugal,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/15/%E2%80%98keroncong%E2%80%99-freedom-music-portuguese-descendants.html|title='Keroncong': Freedom music from Portuguese descendants|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2011-06-16|access-date=2015-09-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923061057/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/15/%E2%80%98keroncong%E2%80%99-freedom-music-portuguese-descendants.html|archive-date=2015-09-23}}</ref> and [[dangdut]]—one of Indonesia's most popular music genres—with notable Hindi influence as well as Malay orchestras.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Ariel Heryanto|last=Heryanto|first= Ariel|year=2008|title=Popular Culture in Indonesia: Fluid Identities in Post-Authoritarian Politics|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Today, the Indonesian music industry enjoys both nationwide and regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tirto.id/musik-di-tengah-konflik-indonesia-malaysia-cu8t|title=Music Amid the Indonesia-Malaysia Conflict|publisher=Tirto.id|language=id|last=Abdulsalam|first= Husein|date=2017-08-23|access-date=2020-12-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817090354/https://tirto.id/musik-di-tengah-konflik-indonesia-malaysia-cu8t|archive-date=2019-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fimela.com/news-entertainment/read/2982723/editor-says-ketika-musik-indonesia-berjaya-di-negeri-tetangga|title=Editor Says: Ketika Musik Indonesia Berjaya di Negeri Tetangga|publisher=Fimela|language=id|last=Zulmi|first= Nizar|date=2017-06-08|access-date=2020-12-05|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125054232/https://www.fimela.com/news-entertainment/read/2982723/editor-says-ketika-musik-indonesia-berjaya-di-negeri-tetangga|archive-date=2021-01-25}}</ref> due to the common culture and [[Comparison of Indonesian and Standard Malay|mutual intelligibility]] between [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Malay language|Malay]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtWdhQ7vc6kC&pg=PA71|title=The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar|last1=Adelaar|first1=K. Alexander|last2=Himmelmann|first2=Nikolaus|date=2013-03-07|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-75509-5|page=71}}</ref>
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Katoenen wikkelrok met geometrisch patroon TMnr 5713-2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Cotton [[wrap skirt|wikkelrok]] with [[batik]] geometric pattern]]
Indonesian dances have a diverse history, with more than 3,000 original dances. Scholars believe that they had their beginning in rituals and religious worship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indonesia-tourism.com/general/theatre.html|title=Indonesia Tourism : The Dance and Theater in the Archipelago|publisher=Indonesia Tourism|access-date=2010-11-24|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124083455/http://indonesia-tourism.com/general/theatre.html|archive-date=2010-11-24}}</ref> Examples include war dances, a dance of [[witch doctor]]s, and a dance to call for rain or any agricultural rituals such as [[Hudoq]]. Indonesian dances derive their influences from the archipelago's prehistoric and tribal, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic periods. Recently, modern dances and urban teen dances have gained popularity due to the influence of Western culture and those of Japan and South Korea to some extent. However, various traditional dances, including those of Java, Bali and Dayak, remain a living and dynamic tradition.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nhb.gov.sg/spm/-/media/spm/documents/indonesia-land-of-dance-and-dragon.pdf?la=en|title=Land of Dance & Dragon|publisher=National Heritage Board|author=Chua Mei Lin|date=January–March 2011|access-date=2020-12-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206060336/https://www.nhb.gov.sg/spm/-/media/spm/documents/indonesia-land-of-dance-and-dragon.pdf?la=en|archive-date=2020-12-06}}</ref>
Indonesia has various clothing styles due to its long and rich cultural history. The national costume originates from the country's indigenous culture and traditional textile traditions. The Javanese [[Batik]] and [[Kebaya]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/indepth/2011-11/16/c_131249994.htm|title=Cultural feast at ASEAN Fair|last=Ziyi|first= Xia|publisher=Xinhua|date=2011-11-16|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219173602/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/indepth/2011-11/16/c_131249994.htm|archive-date=2011-12-19}}</ref> are arguably Indonesia's most recognised national costumes, though they have [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] and [[Balinese people|Balinese]] origins as well.<ref name="ReferenceA">Jill Forshee, ''Culture and customs of Indonesia'', Greenwood Publishing Group: 2006: {{ISBN|0-313-33339-4}}. 237 pp.</ref> Each province has a representation of traditional attire and dress,<ref name="JForshee" /> such as [[Ulos]] of [[Batak]] from [[North Sumatra]]; [[Songket]] of [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] and [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]] from Sumatra; and [[Ikat]] of [[Sasak people|Sasak]] from [[Lombok]]. People wear national and regional costumes during traditional weddings, formal ceremonies, music performances, government and official occasions,<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and they vary from traditional to modern attire.
=== Theatre and cinema ===
{{Main|Theatre of Indonesia|Cinema of Indonesia}}
{{See further|List of highest-grossing films in Indonesia}}
[[File:Wayang Wong Bharata Pandawa.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pandava]] and [[Krishna]] in an act of the ''Wayang Wong'' performance|alt=]]
[[Wayang]], the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese [[shadow puppet]] theatre display several mythological legends such as [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gamelan.org/balungan/back_issues/balungan(9-10)/2-Ruslaiana_Dancedrama.pdf|title=Traditions, Wayang Wong Priangan: Dance Drama of West Java|date=2004|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152545/http://www.gamelan.org/balungan/back_issues/balungan(9-10)/2-Ruslaiana_Dancedrama.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref> Other forms of local drama include the Javanese [[Ludruk]] and [[Ketoprak]], the Sundanese [[Sandiwara]], Betawi [[Lenong]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast-Asian-arts/Shadow-puppet-theatre|title=Southeast Asian arts|last=José|first=Maceda|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2016-04-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420080922/https://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast-Asian-arts/Shadow-puppet-theatre|archive-date=2016-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tnol.asia/arts-culture/19661-ketoprak-javanese-folk-art-part-1-of-2.html|title=Ketoprak: Javanese Folk Art (Part 1 of 2)|last=Dewangga|first= Kusuma|publisher=Indonesia's Global Portal|date=2013-11-10|access-date=2013-11-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113041642/http://www.tnol.asia/arts-culture/19661-ketoprak-javanese-folk-art-part-1-of-2.html|archive-date=2013-11-13}}</ref> and various Balinese dance dramas. They incorporate humour and jest and often involve audiences in their performances.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Theatre-and-dance|title=Indonesia – Theatre and Dance|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2016-06-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629210212/https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Theatre-and-dance|archive-date=2016-06-29}}</ref> Some theatre traditions also include music, dancing and [[Pencak Silat|silat]] martial art, such as [[Randai]] from the [[Minangkabau people]] of West Sumatra. It is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Daughters Take Over? Female Performers in Randai Theatre|last=Pauka|first= Kirstin|journal=The Drama Review|volume=42|issue=1|pages=113–121|year=1998|doi=10.1162/105420498760308706|s2cid=57565023}}</ref><ref name="randai">{{cite web|url=http://globalshakespeares.mit.edu/glossary/randai/|title=Randai (Indonesian folk theater form, uses silat)|publisher=MIT Global Shakespeares}}</ref> and based on semi-historical Minangkabau legends and love story.<ref name="randai" /> Modern performing art also developed in Indonesia with its distinct style of drama. Notable theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as ''Teater Koma'' are famous as it often portrays social and political satire of Indonesian society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insideindonesia.org/review-indonesian-post-colonial-theatre|title=Review: Indonesian post-colonial theatre|last=Hatley|first= Barbara|publisher=Inside Indonesia|date=2017-11-13|access-date=2017-12-21|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221065709/http://www.insideindonesia.org/review-indonesian-post-colonial-theatre|archive-date=2017-12-21}}</ref>
[[File:Loetoeng Kasaroeng p67.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Advertisement for ''[[Loetoeng Kasaroeng]]'' (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies]]
The first film produced in the archipelago was ''[[Loetoeng Kasaroeng]]'',<ref name="Ctrip" /> a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp. The film industry expanded after independence, with six films made in 1949 rising to 58 in 1955. [[Usmar Ismail]], who made significant imprints in the 1950s and 1960s, is generally considered the pioneer of Indonesian films.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://time.com/5206668/google-doodle-usmar-ismail-indonesia/|title=Today Is the 97th Birthday of the Father of Indonesian Cinema. Here's What You Should Know About Usmar Ismail|publisher=TIME|date=2018-03-20|access-date=2019-11-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409155237/https://time.com/5206668/google-doodle-usmar-ismail-indonesia/|archive-date=2019-04-09}}</ref> The [[Guided Democracy in Indonesia|latter part of the Sukarno era]] saw the use of cinema for nationalistic, anti-Western purposes, and foreign films were subsequently banned, while the New Order utilised a censorship code that aimed to maintain social order.<ref name="Krishna Sen">{{cite book|last=Sen|first= Krishna|editor=Giecko, Anne Tereska|title=Contemporary Asian Cinema, Indonesia: Screening a Nation in the Post-New Order|publisher=Berg|year=2006|location=Oxford/New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryasia0000unse/page/96 96–107]|isbn=978-1-84520-237-8|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryasia0000unse/page/96}}</ref> Production of films peaked during the 1980s, although it declined significantly in the next decade.<ref name="Ctrip">{{cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/indonesia/articles/the-reformation-of-indonesian-film/|title=The Reformation of Indonesian Film|last=Sitorus|first= Rina|publisher=The Culture Trip|date=2017-11-30|access-date=2019-11-22|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122042803/https://theculturetrip.com/asia/indonesia/articles/the-reformation-of-indonesian-film/|archive-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> Notable films in this period include ''[[Satan's Slave (1980 film)|Pengabdi Setan]]'' (1980), ''[[Nagabonar]]'' (1987), ''[[Tjoet Nja' Dhien]]'' (1988), ''[[Catatan Si Boy]]'' (1989), and [[Warkop]]'s comedy films.
[[Independent film]]making was a rebirth of the film industry since 1998, when films started addressing previously banned topics, such as religion, race, and love.<ref name="Krishna Sen" /> Between 2000 and 2005, the number of films released each year steadily increased.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm|title=The Last 10 Years of Indonesia's Film Industry|last=Kristianto|first= JB|newspaper=Kompas|language=id|date=2005-07-02|access-date=2008-10-13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113052204/http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm|archive-date=2008-01-13}}</ref> [[Riri Riza]] and [[Mira Lesmana]] were among the new generation of filmmakers who co-directed ''Kuldesak'' (1999), ''[[Petualangan Sherina]]'' (2000), ''[[Ada Apa dengan Cinta?]]'' (2002), and ''[[Laskar Pelangi]]'' (2008). In 2022, ''KKN di Desa Penari'' smashed box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://deadline.com/2022/12/indonesian-films-record-box-office-kkn-di-desa-penari-satans-slaves-2-disney-1235204953/|title=Indonesian Films Race Past Pre-Pandemic Admissions Record; 'KKN Di Desa Penari', 'Satan's Slaves 2', Disney Movies Top 2022 Box Office; Theatrical Market Set For Growth|last=Shackleton|first=Liz|magazine=Deadline|date=2022-12-22|access-date=2022-12-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225073509/https://deadline.com/2022/12/indonesian-films-record-box-office-kkn-di-desa-penari-satans-slaves-2-disney-1235204953/|archive-date=2022-12-25}}</ref> Indonesia has held annual film festivals and awards, including the [[Indonesian Film Festival]] (''Festival Film Indonesia'') held intermittently since 1955. It hands out the [[Citra Award]], the film industry's most prestigious award. From 1973 to 1992, the festival was held annually and then discontinued until its revival in 2004.
=== Mass media and literature ===
{{Main|Mass media in Indonesia|Indonesian literature}}
[[File:TV News Media in GBK Stadium, Jakarta, MetroTV.jpg|thumb|left|[[Metro TV (Indonesian TV network)|Metro TV]] at [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium]], reporting the [[2010 AFF Championship]]]]
[[Media of Indonesia|Media]] freedom increased considerably after the fall of the New Order, during which the Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shannon L.|first= Smith|author2=Lloyd Grayson J.|title=Indonesia Today: Challenges of History|publisher=Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2001|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-0-7425-1761-5}}</ref> The television market includes several national commercial networks and provincial networks that compete with public [[TVRI]], which held a monopoly on TV broadcasting from 1962 to 1989. By the early 21st century, the improved communications system had brought television signals to every village, and people can choose from up to 11 channels.<ref name="frd2011">
{{citation-attribution|1={{cite book|url=https://lccn.loc.gov/2011038834|title=Indonesia: A country study|editor-first=William H.|editor-last=Frederick|editor2-first=Robert L.|editor2-last=Worden|publisher=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division|edition=6th|date=2011|isbn=978-0-8444-0790-6|access-date=2015-03-15}}}}</ref> Private radio stations carry news bulletins while foreign broadcasters supply programmes. The number of printed publications has increased significantly since 1998.<ref name="frd2011" />
Like other developing countries, Indonesia began developing [[Internet]] in the early 1990s. Its first commercial [[Internet service provider]], PT. Indo Internet began operation in Jakarta in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cleanitproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/2010-Radical-websites-Indonesia.pdf|title=The Internet in Indonesia: Development and Impact of Radical Websites|author=Jennifer Yang Hui|publisher=Routledge|date=2009-12-02|access-date=2017-12-12|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212193316/http://www.cleanitproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/2010-Radical-websites-Indonesia.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-12}}</ref> The country had 171 million Internet users in 2018, with a penetration rate that keeps increasing annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2019/05/18/indonesia-has-171-million-internet-users-study.html|title=Indonesia has 171 million internet users: Study|publisher=The Jakarta Post|date=2019-05-19|access-date=2019-07-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605043732/https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2019/05/18/indonesia-has-171-million-internet-users-study.html|archive-date=2019-06-05}}</ref> Most are between the ages of 15 and 19 and depend primarily on mobile phones for access, outnumbering laptops and computers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computerweekly.com/news/450288410/Indonesian-internet-users-turn-to-smartphones-to-go-online|title=Indonesian internet users turn to smartphones to go online|author=Ai Lei Tao|publisher=Computer Weekly|date=2016-04-25|access-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151259/http://www.computerweekly.com/news/450288410/Indonesian-internet-users-turn-to-smartphones-to-go-online|archive-date=2017-10-10}}</ref>
[[File:Pramudya Ananta Tur Kesusastraan Modern Indonesia p226.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], Indonesia's most famous novelist. Many considered him to be Southeast Asia's leading candidate for a [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/pramoedya|title=Pramoedya|publisher=Prospect|last=Templer|first= Robert|date=1999-06-20|access-date=2019-08-29|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829092831/https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/pramoedya|archive-date=2019-08-29}}</ref> ]]
The oldest evidence of writing in the Indonesian archipelago is a series of [[Sanskrit]] inscriptions dated to the 5th century. Many of Indonesia's peoples have firmly rooted [[oral tradition]]s, which help define and preserve their cultural identities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|title=Preserving intangible cultural heritage in Indonesia|last1=Czermak|first1=Karin|last2=Delanghe|first2=Philippe|last3=Weng|first3=Wei|publisher=SIL International|access-date=2007-07-09|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709194435/http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|archive-date=2007-07-09}}</ref> In written poetry and prose, several traditional forms dominate, mainly [[syair]], [[pantun]], [[gurindam]], [[List of Hikayat|hikayat]] and [[Javanese historical texts|babad]]. Examples of these forms include ''[[Syair Abdul Muluk]]'', ''[[Hikayat Hang Tuah]]'', ''[[Malay Annals|Sulalatus Salatin]]'', and ''[[Babad Tanah Jawi]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nursisto|title=Ikhtisar Kesusastraan Indonesia: dari pantun, bidal, gurindam hingga puisi kontemporer : dari dongeng, hikayat, roman hingga cerita pendek dan novel|publisher=Adicita|date=2000|isbn=978-979-9246-28-8}}{{page needed|date=December 2016}}</ref>
Early modern Indonesian literature originates in the Sumatran tradition.<ref>{{cite book|last=Joy Freidus|first= Alberta|year=1977|title=Sumatran Contributions to the Development of Indonesian Literature, 1920–1942|publisher=Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Seong Chee Tham|title=Essays on Literature and Society in Southeast Asia: Political and Sociological Perspectives|page=99|date=1981|location=Kent Ridge, Singapore|publisher=Singapore University Press|isbn=978-9971-69-036-6|url={{Google books|id=h6SOvP6FLskC|page=99|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> Literature and poetry flourished during the decades leading up to and after independence. [[Balai Pustaka]], the government bureau for popular literature, was instituted in 1917 to promote the development of indigenous literature. Many scholars consider the 1950s and 1960s to be the Golden Age of Indonesian Literature.<ref name="literary">{{cite web|url=https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor/|title=An Introduction to the Literature of Indonesia, 2015 Frankfurt Book Fair's Guest of Honor|publisher=Jakarta Globe|last=Boediman|first= Manneke|date=2015-10-14|access-date=2020-06-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626092816/https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor/|archive-date=2020-06-26}}</ref> The style and characteristics of modern Indonesian literature vary according to the dynamics of the country's political and social landscape,<ref name="literary" /> most notably the war of independence in the second half of the 1940s and the anti-communist mass killings in the mid-1960s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/may/28/why-isnt-more-indonesia-literature-translated-english|title='17,000 islands of imagination': discovering Indonesian literature|work=The Guardian|last=Doughty|first= Louis|date=2016-05-28|access-date=2020-06-26|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529122114/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/may/28/why-isnt-more-indonesia-literature-translated-english|archive-date=2016-05-29}}</ref> Notable literary figures of the modern era include [[Multatuli]], [[Chairil Anwar]], [[Mohammad Yamin]], [[Merari Siregar]], [[Marah Roesli]], [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], and [[Ayu Utami]].
=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Indonesian cuisine}}
[[File:Nasi ramas rendang.JPG|thumb|left|''[[Nasi Padang]]'' with ''[[rendang]]'', ''[[gulai]]'' and vegetables|alt=]]
Indonesian cuisine is one of the world's most diverse, vibrant, and colourful, full of intense flavour.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2008/07/01/about-indonesian-food|title=About Indonesian food|publisher=Special Broadcasting Service|date=2015-05-13|access-date=2015-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521014618/https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2008/07/01/about-indonesian-food|archive-date=2015-05-21|url-status=live}}</ref> Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.<ref>{{cite book|last=Witton|first= Patrick|title=World Food: Indonesia|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|year=2002|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74059-009-9}}</ref> Rice is the leading [[staple food]] and is served with [[side dish]]es of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chilli), [[coconut milk]], fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.<ref>Compared to the infused flavors of [[Vietnamese food|Vietnamese]] and [[Thai food]], flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial.{{cite book|last=Brissendon|first= Rosemary|title=South East Asian Food|publisher=Hardie Grant Books|year=2003|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74066-013-6}}</ref>
Some popular dishes such as ''[[nasi goreng]]'', ''[[gado-gado]]'', ''[[Satay|sate]]'', and ''[[Soto (food)|soto]]'' are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose ''[[tumpeng]]'' as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/10/celebratory-rice-cone-dish-represent-archipelago.html|title=Celebratory rice cone dish to represent the archipelago|last=Natahadibrata|first= Nadya|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2014-02-10|access-date=2014-07-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714213059/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/10/celebratory-rice-cone-dish-represent-archipelago.html|archive-date=2014-07-14}}</ref> Other popular dishes include ''[[rendang]]'', one of the many [[Padang cuisine]]s along with ''[[dendeng]]'' and ''[[gulai]]''. Another fermented food is ''[[oncom]]'', similar in some ways to ''[[tempeh]]'' but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in [[West Java]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sastraatmadja|first1=D. D.|display-authors=etal|year=2002|title=Production of High-Quality Oncom, a Traditional Indonesian Fermented Food, by the Inoculation with Selected Mold Strains in the Form of Pure Culture and Solid Inoculum|journal=Journal of the Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University|volume=70|hdl=115/13163}}</ref>
{{-}}
=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Indonesia|Indonesian martial arts}}
[[File:Pencak Silat Betawi 2.jpg|thumb|upright|A demonstration of ''[[Pencak Silat]]'', a form of martial arts]][[Badminton]] and [[association football|football]] are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the [[Thomas Cup|Thomas]] and [[Uber Cup]], the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], it is the sport that contributes the most to [[Indonesia at the Olympics|Indonesia's Olympic medal tally]]. [[Liga 1 (Indonesia)|Liga 1]] is the country's premier football club league. On the international stage, [[Indonesia national football team|Indonesia]] was the first Asian team to participate in the [[FIFA World Cup]] in [[1938 FIFA World Cup|1938]] as the Dutch East Indies.<ref>Alex Monnig, World Cup, 2013</ref> On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the [[1958 Asian Games]] as well as two gold medals at the [[1987 Southeast Asian Games|1987]] and [[1991 Southeast Asian Games]] (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the [[AFC Asian Cup]] was in [[1996 AFC Asian Cup|1996]] and successfully qualified for a total of five tournaments, although they never make the knockout phase.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/china-cant-keep-up-with-peers-20070720-gdqnvf.html|title=China can't keep up with peers|publisher=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=2007-07-20|access-date=2020-12-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206035102/https://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/china-cant-keep-up-with-peers-20070720-gdqnvf.html|archive-date=2020-12-06}}</ref>
Other popular sports include [[boxing]] and [[basketball]], which has a long history in Indonesia and was part of the first [[National Sports Week (Indonesia)|National Games]] (''Pekan Olahraga Nasional'', PON) in 1948.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nblindonesia.com/v1/index.php?page=abouten|title=History of Basketball in Indonesia|publisher=National Basketball League Indonesia|access-date=2016-09-08|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908220708/http://www.nblindonesia.com/v1/index.php?page=abouten|archive-date=2016-09-08}}</ref> ''[[Sepak takraw]]'' and ''[[karapan sapi]]'' (bull racing) in [[Madura Island|Madura]] are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as ''caci'' in [[Flores]] and ''[[pasola]]'' in [[Sumba]]. ''[[Pencak Silat]]'' is an Indonesian martial art and, in 1987, became one of the sporting events in the SEA Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia is one of the top sports powerhouses by topping the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://en.tempo.co/read/907202/lack-of-gold|title=Lack of Gold|publisher=Tempo|date=2017-09-08|access-date=2020-08-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816043954/https://en.tempo.co/read/907202/lack-of-gold|archive-date=2020-08-16}}</ref> most recently in [[2011 Southeast Asian Games|2011]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://en.antaranews.com/news/77844/ffinal-medal-tally-sea-games-2011|title=Final medal tally SEA Games 2011|newspaper=ANTARA News|date=2011-11-22|access-date=2020-08-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823054617/https://en.antaranews.com/news/77844/ffinal-medal-tally-sea-games-2011|archive-date=2018-08-23}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{portal|Indonesia|Asia|Islands}}
* [[List of Indonesia-related topics]]
* [[Index of Indonesia-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Indonesia]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZtDIhWzFeUC |title=Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society |editor-last=Ammon |editor-first=Ulrich |editor-last2=Dittmar |editor-first2=Norbert |editor-last3=Mattheier |editor-first3=Klaus J. |editor-last4=Trudgill |editor-first4=Peter |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2006 |edition=2nd, revised and extended |volume=3 |isbn=9783110184181 |access-date=June 29, 2010}}
* {{Citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC |title=Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education |access-date=May 19, 2010 |first1=Colin |last1=Baker |first2=Sylvia |last2=Prys Jones |publisher=Multilingual Matters Ltd. |year=1998 |isbn = 9781853593628}}
* {{cite book |last=Bevins |first=Vincent|author-link=Vincent Bevins|title= [[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]] |date=2020 |publisher= [[PublicAffairs]] |isbn= 978-1541742406}}
* {{Citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LT6E6YdAh-MC |title=The Phonology of Dutch. |first=Geert |last=Booij |work=Oxford Linguistics |year=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-823869-X |access-date=May 24, 2010}}
* {{cite book|last=Cribb|first=Robert|title=Historical atlas of Indonesia|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2013}}
* {{cite book|last=Crouch|first=Harold|title=The army and politics in Indonesia|publisher=[[Cornell University Press|Cornell UP]]|year=2019}}
* {{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George SW |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850}}
* {{cite book|last=Effendy|first=Bahtiar|title=Islam and the State in Indonesia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2003}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Emmers|first=Ralf|date=2005|title=Regional Hegemonies and the Exercise of Power in Southeast Asia: A Study of Indonesia and Vietnam|journal=[[Asian Survey]]|publisher=University of California Press|volume=45|issue=4|pages=645–665|doi=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645|jstor=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fossati|first1=Diego|first2=Yew-Foong|last2=Hui|title=The Indonesia national survey project: Economy, society and politics|publisher=ISEAS Publishing|year=2017}}
* {{cite book|surname=Friend|given=T.|title=Indonesian Destinies|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=0-674-01137-6|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hadiz|first1=Vedi R.|first2=Richard|last2=Robison|title=The political economy of oligarchy and the reorganization of power in Indonesia|chapter=Beyond Oligarchy|publisher=[[Cornell University Press|Cornell UP]]|year=2014|pages=35–56|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519011543/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=2021-05-19|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Indonesia|first=Statistics|title=Statistical yearbook of Indonesia 2009|publisher=Statistics Indonesia, 2019|url=https://seadelt.net/Asset/Source/Document_ID-184_No-01.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Kitley|first=Philip|title=Television, nation, and culture in Indonesia|publisher=[[Ohio University Press]]|year=2014}}
* {{cite book|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=2018|title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-57469-4}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mietzner|first1=Marcus|first2=Burhanuddin|last2=Muhtadi|title=Explaining the 2016 Islamist mobilisation in Indonesia: Religious intolerance, militant groups and the politics of accommodation|journal=Asian Studies Review|issue=42|volume=3|year=2018|pages=479–497|doi=10.1080/10357823.2018.1473335|s2cid=150302264|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326286879}}
* {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|authorlink=Merle Ricklefs|year=1991|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300|edition=2nd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press |isbn=0-333-57690-X}}
* {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|author-link=Merle Ricklefs|year=2001|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200|edition=3rd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4480-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GrWCmZoEBMC}}
* {{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Geoffrey B.|date=2018|title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4008-8886-3}}
* {{cite book|surname=Schwarz|given=A.|year=1994|title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=1-86373-635-2|url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw}}
* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |isbn=978-0-300-09709-2}}
* {{cite book|surname=Vickers|given=Adrian|title=A History of Modern Indonesia|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=0-521-54262-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2=R. E.|last3=Suraya|first3=A. A.|year=1996|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Hong Kong}}
* Winters, Jeffrey A. "Oligarchy and democracy in Indonesia." in ''Beyond Oligarchy'' (Cornell UP, 2014) pp. 11–34. [https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023093720/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1|date=2020-10-23}}
* {{cite book|last=Witton|first=Patrick|year=2003|title=Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74059-154-6}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Indonesia|d=Q252}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ Indonesia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-14921238 Indonesia] from [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ID Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia] from [[International Futures]]
===Government===
* [http://www.setneg.go.id/ Minister of The State Secretary] {{in lang|id}}
* [http://www.bps.go.id/ Statistics Indonesia]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/ID.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012020339/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/ID.html|date=2014-10-12}}
===General===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090426085755/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/indonesia.htm Indonesia] ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{curlie|Regional/Asia/Indonesia}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286480/Indonesia Indonesia] ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* {{Wikiatlas|Indonesia}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|304751}}
* [http://www.indonesia.travel/ Official Site of Indonesian Tourism]
{{Indonesia topics}}
{{Navboxes
|title=Articles relating to Indonesia
|list=
{{Government of Indonesia}}
{{Provinces of Indonesia}}
{{Countries and territories of Oceania}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)}}
{{G20}}
{{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}}
{{Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}}
{{Non-Aligned Movement}}
{{Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)}}}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Indonesia| ]]<!---Bicontinental--->
[[Category:Countries in Asia]]
[[Category:Member states of ASEAN]]
[[Category:Muslim Majority Nations]]
[[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Island countries]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Countries in Melanesia]]
[[Category:Developing 8 Countries member states]]
[[Category:E7 nations]]
[[Category:G15 nations]]
[[Category:G20 nations]]
[[Category:Former OPEC member states]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Newly industrializing countries]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian countries]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1945]]
[[Category:Transcontinental countries]]
[[Category:Malay-speaking countries and territories]]' |
