Jump to content

Dysgenics: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Rolling back some rather extensive and arguable WP:UNDUE additions. Please establish consensus for inclusion.
@Generalrelative, we may well discuss this on the talk page, but if you keep mass reverting completely unrelated edits (*e.g. my "clarification needed" template) on this article in the future, we will have to enter dispute resolution. ... As regards WP:UNDUE, please specify your reasoning
Line 4: Line 4:
The adjective "dysgenic" is the antonym of "[[eugenic]]". In 1915 the term was used by [[David Starr Jordan]] to describe the supposed deleterious effects of modern warfare on group-level genetic fitness because of its tendency to kill physically healthy men while preserving the disabled at home.<ref name="Jordan">{{cite book| last = Jordan| first = David Starr| title = War and the Breed: The Relation of War to the Downfall of Nations| publisher = University Press of the Pacific| year= 2003|edition=Reprint| isbn = 978-1-4102-0900-9|location = Honolulu}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Carlson|first=Elof Axel|title=The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea|publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press|year=2001|isbn=9780879695873|pages=189–193}}</ref> Similar concerns had been raised by early eugenicists and [[Social Darwinism|social Darwinists]] during the 19th century, and continued to play a role in scientific and public policy debates throughout the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Carlson|first=Elof Axel|title=The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea|publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press|year=2001|isbn=9780879695873}}</ref> More recent concerns about supposed dysgenic effects in human populations have been advanced by the controversial psychologist [[Richard Lynn]], notably in his 1996 book ''[[Dysgenics: Genetic Deterioration in Modern Populations]]'', which argued that a reduction in [[Evolutionary pressure|selection pressures]] and decreased [[infant mortality]] since the [[Industrial Revolution]] have resulted in an increased propagation of deleterious traits and [[genetic disorder]]s.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Dysgenics 1996">Richard Lynn: ''Dysgenics: genetic deterioration in modern populations'' [[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]], Connecticut. : Praeger, 1996., {{ISBN|978-0-275-94917-4}}.</ref>
The adjective "dysgenic" is the antonym of "[[eugenic]]". In 1915 the term was used by [[David Starr Jordan]] to describe the supposed deleterious effects of modern warfare on group-level genetic fitness because of its tendency to kill physically healthy men while preserving the disabled at home.<ref name="Jordan">{{cite book| last = Jordan| first = David Starr| title = War and the Breed: The Relation of War to the Downfall of Nations| publisher = University Press of the Pacific| year= 2003|edition=Reprint| isbn = 978-1-4102-0900-9|location = Honolulu}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Carlson|first=Elof Axel|title=The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea|publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press|year=2001|isbn=9780879695873|pages=189–193}}</ref> Similar concerns had been raised by early eugenicists and [[Social Darwinism|social Darwinists]] during the 19th century, and continued to play a role in scientific and public policy debates throughout the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Carlson|first=Elof Axel|title=The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea|publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press|year=2001|isbn=9780879695873}}</ref> More recent concerns about supposed dysgenic effects in human populations have been advanced by the controversial psychologist [[Richard Lynn]], notably in his 1996 book ''[[Dysgenics: Genetic Deterioration in Modern Populations]]'', which argued that a reduction in [[Evolutionary pressure|selection pressures]] and decreased [[infant mortality]] since the [[Industrial Revolution]] have resulted in an increased propagation of deleterious traits and [[genetic disorder]]s.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Dysgenics 1996">Richard Lynn: ''Dysgenics: genetic deterioration in modern populations'' [[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]], Connecticut. : Praeger, 1996., {{ISBN|978-0-275-94917-4}}.</ref>


Despite these concerns, genetic studies have shown no evidence for dysgenic effects in human populations.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Fischbach |first1=Karl-Friedrich |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-35321-6_9 |title=Heritability of Intelligence |last2=Niggeschmidt |first2=Martin |publisher=Springer |year=2022 |isbn=978-3-658-35321-6 |pages=37–39 |chapter=Do the Dumb Get Dumber and the Smart Get Smarter? |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-35321-6_9 |s2cid=244640696}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Conley|first1=Dalton|last2=Laidley|first2=Thomas|last3=Belsky|first3=Daniel W.|last4=Fletcher|first4=Jason M.|last5=Boardman|first5=Jason D.|last6=Domingue|first6=Benjamin W.|date=14 June 2016|title=Assortative mating and differential fertility by phenotype and genotype across the 20th century|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=113|issue=24|pages=6647–6652|doi=10.1073/pnas.1523592113|pmid=27247411|pmc=4914190|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6647C }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bratsberg|first1=Bernt|last2=Rogeberg|first2=Ole|date=26 June 2018|title=Flynn effect and its reversal are both environmentally caused|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=115|issue=26|pages=6674–6678|doi=10.1073/pnas.1718793115|pmid=29891660|pmc=6042097|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018PNAS..115.6674B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Neisser|first=Ulric|title=The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures|publisher=American Psychological Association|year=1998|isbn=978-1557985033|pages=xiii–xiv|quote=There is no convincing evidence that any dysgenic trend exists. . . . It turns out, counterintuitively, that differential birth rates (for groups scoring high and low on a trait) do ''not'' necessarily produces changes in the population mean.}}</ref>
Despite these concerns, genetic studies have shown no evidence for dysgenic effects in human populations.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Fischbach |first1=Karl-Friedrich |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-35321-6_9 |title=Heritability of Intelligence |last2=Niggeschmidt |first2=Martin |publisher=Springer |year=2022 |isbn=978-3-658-35321-6 |pages=37–39 |chapter=Do the Dumb Get Dumber and the Smart Get Smarter? |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-35321-6_9 |s2cid=244640696}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Conley|first1=Dalton|last2=Laidley|first2=Thomas|last3=Belsky|first3=Daniel W.|last4=Fletcher|first4=Jason M.|last5=Boardman|first5=Jason D.|last6=Domingue|first6=Benjamin W.|date=14 June 2016|title=Assortative mating and differential fertility by phenotype and genotype across the 20th century|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=113|issue=24|pages=6647–6652|doi=10.1073/pnas.1523592113|pmid=27247411|pmc=4914190|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6647C }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bratsberg|first1=Bernt|last2=Rogeberg|first2=Ole|date=26 June 2018|title=Flynn effect and its reversal are both environmentally caused|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=115|issue=26|pages=6674–6678|doi=10.1073/pnas.1718793115|pmid=29891660|pmc=6042097|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018PNAS..115.6674B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Neisser|first=Ulric|title=The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures|publisher=American Psychological Association|year=1998|isbn=978-1557985033|pages=xiii–xiv|quote=There is no convincing evidence that any dysgenic trend exists. . . . It turns out, counterintuitively,{{Clarify|date=June 2024}} that differential birth rates (for groups scoring high and low on a trait) do ''not'' necessarily produces changes in the population mean.}}</ref>


==Attempts at an empirical verification==
== In fiction ==
===The reverse Flynn effect===
[[Cyril M. Kornbluth]]'s 1951 short story "[[The Marching Morons]]" is an example of dysgenic fiction, describing a man who accidentally ends up in the distant future and discovers that dysgenics has resulted in mass stupidity. [[Mike Judge]]'s 2006 film ''[[Idiocracy]]'' has the same premise, with the main character the subject of a military [[hibernation]] experiment that goes awry, taking him 500 years into the future. While in "The Marching Morons", civilization is kept afloat by a small group of dedicated geniuses, in ''Idiocracy'', [[voluntary childlessness]] among high-IQ couples leaves only [[expert system|automated systems]] to fill that role.<ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/09/business/09online.html |title=Shying away from Degeneracy|work=The New York Times|author=Mitchell, Dan|date=2006-09-09|access-date=2008-06-29}}</ref>
{{excerpt|Flynn effect#Possible end of progression}}

==Factors associated with increased mutational load==
===Maternal age effect===
{{excerpt|Advanced maternal age}}
====Ethical debate====
{{excerpt|Pregnancy over age 50#Debate|hat=no}}

===Paternal age effect===
{{excerpt|Paternal age effect}}


== See also ==
== See also ==

Revision as of 17:25, 30 June 2024

Not to be confused with Dysgenesis (embryology).

Dysgenics is the decrease in prevalence of traits deemed to be either socially desirable or well adapted to their environment due to selective pressure disfavoring the reproduction of those traits.[1]

The adjective "dysgenic" is the antonym of "eugenic". In 1915 the term was used by David Starr Jordan to describe the supposed deleterious effects of modern warfare on group-level genetic fitness because of its tendency to kill physically healthy men while preserving the disabled at home.[2][3] Similar concerns had been raised by early eugenicists and social Darwinists during the 19th century, and continued to play a role in scientific and public policy debates throughout the 20th century.[4] More recent concerns about supposed dysgenic effects in human populations have been advanced by the controversial psychologist Richard Lynn, notably in his 1996 book Dysgenics: Genetic Deterioration in Modern Populations, which argued that a reduction in selection pressures and decreased infant mortality since the Industrial Revolution have resulted in an increased propagation of deleterious traits and genetic disorders.[5][6]

Despite these concerns, genetic studies have shown no evidence for dysgenic effects in human populations.[5][7][8][9]

Attempts at an empirical verification

The reverse Flynn effect

This section is an excerpt from Flynn effect § Possible end of progression.[edit]
Mean standing height and mean GA (both in z scores units+5) by year of testing, from Sundet et al. 2004 (figure 3)

Jon Martin Sundet and colleagues (2004) examined scores on intelligence tests given to Norwegian conscripts between the 1950s and 2002. They found that the increase of scores of general intelligence stopped after the mid-1990s and declined in numerical reasoning sub-tests.[10]

Teasdale and Owen (2005) examined the results of IQ tests given to Danish male conscripts. Between 1959 and 1979 the gains were 3 points per decade. Between 1979 and 1989 the increase approached 2 IQ points. Between 1989 and 1998 the gain was about 1.3 points. Between 1998 and 2004 IQ declined by about the same amount as it gained between 1989 and 1998. They speculate that "a contributing factor in this recent fall could be a simultaneous decline in proportions of students entering 3-year advanced-level school programs for 16–18-year-olds."[11] The same authors in a more comprehensive 2008 study, again on Danish male conscripts, found that there was a 1.5-point increase between 1988 and 1998, but a 1.5-point decrease between 1998 and 2003/2004.[12]

In Australia, the IQ of 6–12-year-olds (as measured by colored progressive matrices) has shown no increase from 1975 to 2003.[13]

In the United Kingdom, a study by Flynn (2009) himself found that tests carried out in 1980 and again in 2008 show that the IQ score of an average 14-year-old dropped by more than two points over the period. For the upper half of the results, the performance was even worse. Average IQ scores declined by six points. However, children aged between five and 10 saw their IQs increase by up to half a point a year over the three decades. Flynn argues that the abnormal drop in British teenage IQ could be due to youth culture having "stagnated" or even dumbed down.[14]

Bratsberg & Rogeberg (2018) present evidence that the Flynn effect in Norway has reversed between the years 1962-1991, and that both the original rise in mean IQ scores and their subsequent decline within this period can be observed within families consisting of native-born parents and their children, indicating that environmental factors were the likely cause for these changes. Because IQ data was only available for male Norwegians, who were subject to military conscription, years of schooling were used as an approximation for female IQ to support this conclusion.[15]

One possible explanation of a worldwide decline in intelligence is an increase in air pollution; coal burning emits mercury, and intelligence has continued to climb in areas, like the southern United States, where coal burning has declined.[16][17][18]

Factors associated with increased mutational load

Maternal age effect

This section is an excerpt from Advanced maternal age.[edit]

Advanced maternal age, in a broad sense, is the instance of a woman being of an older age at a stage of reproduction, although there are various definitions of specific age and stage of reproduction.[19] The variability in definitions is in part explained by the effects of increasing age occurring as a continuum rather than as a threshold effect.[19]

Average age at first childbirth has been increasing, especially in OECD countries, among which the highest average age is 32.6 years (South Korea) followed by 32.1 years (Ireland and Spain).[20] In a number of European countries (Spain), the mean age of women at first childbirth has crossed the 30 year threshold.[21] This process is not restricted to Europe. Asia, Japan and the United States are all seeing average age at first birth on the rise, and increasingly the process is spreading to countries in the developing world such as China, Turkey and Iran. In the U.S., the average age of first childbirth was 26.9 in 2018.[22]

Advanced maternal age is associated with adverse reproductive effects including increased risk of infertility,[23] and chromosomal abnormalities in children.[24] The corresponding paternal age effect is less pronounced.[25][26]

Ethical debate

Pregnancies among older women have been a subject of controversy and debate. Some argue against motherhood late in life on the basis of the health risks involved, or out of concern that an older mother might not be able to give proper care for a child as she ages, while others contend that having a child is a fundamental right and that it is commitment to a child's wellbeing, not the parents' ages, that matters.[27][28][29]

A survey of attitudes towards pregnancy over age 50 among Australians found that 54.6% believed it was acceptable for a post-menopausal woman to have her own eggs transferred and that 37.9% believed it was acceptable for a post-menopausal woman to receive donated ova or embryos.[30]

Governments have sometimes taken actions to regulate or restrict later-in-life childbearing. In the 1990s, France approved a bill which prohibited post-menopausal pregnancy, which the French Minister of Health at the time, Philippe Douste-Blazy, said was "... immoral as well as dangerous to the health of mother and child". In Italy, the Association of Medical Practitioners and Dentists prevented its members from providing women aged 50 and over with fertility treatment. Britain's then-Secretary of State for Health, Virginia Bottomley, stated, "Women do not have the right to have a child; the child has a right to a suitable home".[29] However, in 2005, age restrictions on IVF in the United Kingdom were officially withdrawn.[31]

Legal restrictions are only one of the barriers confronting women seeking IVF, as many fertility clinics and hospitals set age limits of their own.[32]

Paternal age effect

This section is an excerpt from Paternal age effect.[edit]

The paternal age effect is the statistical relationship between the father's age at conception and biological effects on the child.[33] Such effects can relate to birthweight, congenital disorders, life expectancy and psychological outcomes.[34] A 2017 review found that while severe health effects are associated with higher paternal age, the total increase in problems caused by paternal age is low.[35] Average paternal age at birth reached a low point between 1960 and 1980 in many countries and has been increasing since then, but has not reached historically unprecedented levels.[36] The rise in paternal age is not seen as a major public health concern.[35]

The genetic quality of sperm, as well as its volume and motility, may decrease with age,[37] leading the population geneticist James F. Crow to claim that the "greatest mutational health hazard to the human genome is fertile older males".[38]

The paternal age effect was first proposed implicitly by physician Wilhelm Weinberg in 1912[39] and explicitly by psychiatrist Lionel Penrose in 1955.[40] DNA-based research started more recently, in 1998, in the context of paternity testing.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Rédei, George P. (2008). Encyclopedia of Genetics, Genomics, Proteomics, and Informatics, Volume 1. Springer. p. 572. ISBN 978-1-4020-6755-6.
  2. ^ Jordan, David Starr (2003). War and the Breed: The Relation of War to the Downfall of Nations (Reprint ed.). Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific. ISBN 978-1-4102-0900-9.
  3. ^ Carlson, Elof Axel (2001). The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. pp. 189–193. ISBN 9780879695873.
  4. ^ Carlson, Elof Axel (2001). The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 9780879695873.
  5. ^ a b Fischbach, Karl-Friedrich; Niggeschmidt, Martin (2022). "Do the Dumb Get Dumber and the Smart Get Smarter?". Heritability of Intelligence. Springer. pp. 37–39. doi:10.1007/978-3-658-35321-6_9. ISBN 978-3-658-35321-6. S2CID 244640696.
  6. ^ Richard Lynn: Dysgenics: genetic deterioration in modern populations Westport, Connecticut. : Praeger, 1996., ISBN 978-0-275-94917-4.
  7. ^ Conley, Dalton; Laidley, Thomas; Belsky, Daniel W.; Fletcher, Jason M.; Boardman, Jason D.; Domingue, Benjamin W. (14 June 2016). "Assortative mating and differential fertility by phenotype and genotype across the 20th century". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (24): 6647–6652. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113.6647C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1523592113. PMC 4914190. PMID 27247411.
  8. ^ Bratsberg, Bernt; Rogeberg, Ole (26 June 2018). "Flynn effect and its reversal are both environmentally caused". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (26): 6674–6678. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.6674B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1718793115. PMC 6042097. PMID 29891660.
  9. ^ Neisser, Ulric (1998). The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures. American Psychological Association. pp. xiii–xiv. ISBN 978-1557985033. There is no convincing evidence that any dysgenic trend exists. . . . It turns out, counterintuitively,[clarification needed] that differential birth rates (for groups scoring high and low on a trait) do not necessarily produces changes in the population mean.
  10. ^ Sundet, J.; Barlaug, D.; Torjussen, T. (2004). "The end of the Flynn effect?: A study of secular trends in mean intelligence test scores of Norwegian conscripts during half a century". Intelligence. 32 (4): 349–62. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.004.
  11. ^ Teasdale, Thomas W.; Owen, David R. (2005). "A long-term rise and recent decline in intelligence test performance: The Flynn Effect in reverse". Personality and Individual Differences. 39 (4): 837–43. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.01.029.
  12. ^ Teasdale TW, Owen DR (2008). "Secular declines in cognitive test scores: A reversal of the Flynn Effect" (PDF). Intelligence. 36 (2): 121–26. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.01.007. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 15, 2012. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
  13. ^ Cotton, S.M.; Kiely, P.M.; Crewther, D.P.; Thomson, B.; Laycock, R.; Crewther, S.G. (2005). "A normative and reliability study for the Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices for primary school aged children in Australia". Personality and Individual Differences. 39 (3): 647–60. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.015.
  14. ^ Flynn, J.R. (2009). "Requiem for nutrition as the cause of IQ gains: Raven's gains in Britain 1938–2008". Economics & Human Biology. 7 (1): 18–27. doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2009.01.009. PMID 19251490.
  15. ^ Bratsberg, Bernt; Rogeberg, Ole (June 6, 2018). "Flynn effect and its reversal are both environmentally caused". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (26): 6674–78. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.6674B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1718793115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6042097. PMID 29891660.
  16. ^ Clarke, Robin P. (1 August 2015). "Rising–falling mercury pollution causing the rising–falling IQ of the Lynn–Flynn effect, as predicted by the antiinnatia theory of autism and IQ". Personality and Individual Differences. 82: 46–51. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.039. ISSN 0191-8869.
  17. ^ Pesovski, Ivica; Kulakov, Andrea; Trajkovikj, Vladimir (2022). "Differences in cognitive ability assessment results between Millennial and Generation Z cohorts". The 19th International Conference on Informatics and Information Technologies – CIIT 2022.
  18. ^ Bratsberg, Bernt; Rogeberg, Ole (26 June 2018). "Flynn effect and its reversal are both environmentally caused". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (26): 6674–6678. doi:10.1073/pnas.1718793115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6042097. PMID 29891660.
  19. ^ a b Fretts, Ruth C. (3 December 2012). Wilkins-Haug, Louise; Barss, Vanessa A. (eds.). "Effect of advanced age on fertility and pregnancy in women". UpToDate. Archived from the original on 19 June 2016.
  20. ^ "¿A qué edad tienen las madres su primer hijo?" [At what age do mothers have their first child?]. El Orden Mundial (elordenmundial.com) (in Spanish). 12 August 2020.
  21. ^ Mean age of mothers at first childbirth (PDF). oecd.org (Report). Paris, FR: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. SF2.3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2014. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
  22. ^ Births and natality. cdc.org (Report). U.S. Centers for Disease Control. Archived from the original on 12 November 2019. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
  23. ^ Leridon, H. (1 July 2004). "Can assisted reproduction technology compensate for the natural decline in fertility with age? A model assessment". Human Reproduction. 19 (7): 1548–1553. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh304. PMID 15205397.
  24. ^ Morris, J.K.; Mutton, D.E.; Alberman, E. (March 2002). "Revised estimates of the maternal age specific live birth prevalence of Down's syndrome". Journal of Medical Screening. 9 (1): 2–6. doi:10.1136/jms.9.1.2. PMID 11943789.
  25. ^ Tournaye, Herman (June 2009). "Male reproductive ageing". In Bewley, Susan; Ledger, William; Nikolaou, Dimitrios (eds.). Reproductive Ageing. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–104. ISBN 978-1-906985-13-4. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  26. ^ Kidd, Sharon A.; Eskenazi, Brenda; Wyrobek, Andrew J. (February 2001). "Effects of male age on semen quality and fertility: A review of the literature". Fertility and Sterility. 75 (2): 237–248. doi:10.1016/s0015-0282(00)01679-4. PMID 11172821.
  27. ^ "Motherhood At Mid-Life—A Medical and Ethical Dilema Archived 2013-09-29 at archive.today." (July 1997). St. Louis Times. Retrieved March 4, 2007
  28. ^ Hinman, Lawrence M. (April 30, 1997). "What Counts in Parenthood? Archived 2007-07-30 at archive.today." San Diego Union-Tribune. Retrieved March 4, 2007
  29. ^ a b Hinman, Lawrence M. Are Some Parents Too Old? Archived 2003-02-10 at archive.today. Retrieved March 4, 2007
  30. ^ Bowman, M. C., & Saunders, D. M. (1994). Community attitudes to maternal age and pregnancy after assisted reproductive technology: too old at 50 years?. Human Reproduction, 9 (1), 167-171. Retrieved March 4, 2007
  31. ^ Gray, Louise. (November 3, 2005). "Couples any age to be allowed to apply for fertility treatment." The Scotsman. Retrieved March 4, 2007
  32. ^ "Motherhood: Is It Ever Too Late?". HuffPost. 15 August 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2022.
  33. ^ "paternal age effect". Retrieved 2015-05-28.
  34. ^ Amaral, David; Dawson, Geraldine; Geschwind, Daniel (2011). Autism Spectrum Disorders. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537182-6.
  35. ^ a b Nybo Andersen AM, Urhoj SK (February 2017). "Is advanced paternal age a health risk for the offspring?". Fertility and Sterility. 107 (2): 312–8. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.12.019. PMID 28088314.
  36. ^ Willführ, Kai P; Klüsener, Sebastian (2024-04-03). "The current 'dramatically' high paternal ages at childbirth are not unprecedented". Human Reproduction. 39 (6): 1161–1166. doi:10.1093/humrep/deae067. ISSN 0268-1161. PMID 38569672.
  37. ^ Kovac JR, Addai J, Smith RP, Coward RM, Lamb DJ, Lipshultz LI (November 2013). "The effects of advanced paternal age on fertility". Asian Journal of Andrology. 15 (6): 723–8. doi:10.1038/aja.2013.92. PMC 3854059. PMID 23912310.
  38. ^ Crow JF (August 1997). "The high spontaneous mutation rate: is it a health risk?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94 (16): 8380–6. Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.8380C. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.16.8380. PMC 33757. PMID 9237985.
  39. ^ Weinberg, W (1912). "Zur Vererbung des Zwergwuchses" [On the inheritance of dwarfism]. Arch Rassen-u Gesell Biol (in German). 9: 710–718. NAID 10017956735.
  40. ^ Penrose LS (August 1955). "Parental age and mutation". Lancet. 269 (6885): 312–3. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(55)92305-9. PMID 13243724.

Further reading

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dysgenics&oldid=1231860739"