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It is generally regarded that Hindu religious texts are the oldest known literature containing pantheistic ideas.<ref name="Plumptre" /> The [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of Hinduism teaches that the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (true self; human soul) is indistinct from [[Brahman]] (the unknown reality of everything).<ref>Vivekananda, 1987</ref> The branches of Hinduism teaching forms of pantheism are known as non-dualist schools.<ref>Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994), The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion, Seattle, WA: Viveka Press, ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref>
It is generally regarded that Hindu religious texts are the oldest known literature containing pantheistic ideas.<ref name="Plumptre" /> The [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of Hinduism teaches that the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (true self; human soul) is indistinct from [[Brahman]] (the unknown reality of everything).<ref>Vivekananda, 1987</ref> The branches of Hinduism teaching forms of pantheism are known as non-dualist schools.<ref>Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994), The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion, Seattle, WA: Viveka Press, ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref>

In Hindu [[Sanatana Dharma]] [[theology]] Brahm/[[Parabrahma]] is the one unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality which is the Divine Ground of all things in this Universe.<ref>"Faith & Philosophy of Hinduism", p.254, by Rajeev Verma</ref> If one adds two whole parts the result is one whole and if one whole is subtracted from another whole the result is another whole – it means there is one whole universe and it is all pervaded by [[Trimurti]].<ref>"Hinduism: beliefs about God", by [[BBC]]</ref> Since the universe has come forth from the Divine, all things and beings are sacred and must be treated so in human thought and action. The Divine sleeps in minerals, awakens in plants, walks in animals and thinks in humans.<ref>"The Enchantments of Technology", by Lee Bailey, p. 152</ref>


Within Hinduism, there are different approaches to reaching the Divine based on an individual’s own characteristics. This idea of pantheism is traceable from the [[Puranas]] which are the nearest allegorical representations created for the masses whereas Vedas were for the highly literate. All [[Mahāvākyas|Mahāvākyas (Great Sayings)]] of the Upanishads, in one way or another, seem to indicate the unity of the world with the [[Brahman]].<ref>"A Survey of Hinduism: First Edition", by Klaus K. Klostermaier, p. 201</ref> It further says, "This whole universe is Brahman, from Brahman to a clod of earth."<ref>"Hindu Literature: Or the Ancient Books of India", P.115, by Elizabeth A. Reed</ref>
Within Hinduism, there are different approaches to reaching the Divine based on an individual’s own characteristics. This idea of pantheism is traceable from the [[Puranas]] which are the nearest allegorical representations created for the masses whereas Vedas were for the highly literate. All [[Mahāvākyas|Mahāvākyas (Great Sayings)]] of the Upanishads, in one way or another, seem to indicate the unity of the world with the [[Brahman]].<ref>"A Survey of Hinduism: First Edition", by Klaus K. Klostermaier, p. 201</ref> It further says, "This whole universe is Brahman, from Brahman to a clod of earth."<ref>"Hindu Literature: Or the Ancient Books of India", P.115, by Elizabeth A. Reed</ref>

Revision as of 10:19, 29 January 2014

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Pantheism is the belief that the universe (or nature as the totality of everything) is identical with divinity,[1] or that everything composes an all-encompassing, immanent God.[2] Pantheists thus do not believe in a distinct personal or anthropomorphic god.[3] Some Eastern religions are considered to be pantheistically inclined.

Pantheism was popularized in the West as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza,[4]: p.7  whose Ethics was an answer to Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.[5] Spinoza held the monist view that the two are the same, and monism is a fundamental part of his philosophy. He was described as a "God-intoxicated man," and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance.[5] Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate.[6]

Definitions

Pantheism is derived from the Greek roots pan (meaning "all") and theos (meaning "God"). There are a variety of definitions of pantheism. Some consider it a theological and philosophical position concerning God.[4]: p.8 

As a religious position, some describe pantheism as the polar opposite of atheism.[5] From this standpoint, pantheism is the view that everything is part of an all-encompassing, immanent God.[2] All forms of reality may then be considered either modes of that Being, or identical with it.[7] Others hold that pantheism is a non-religious philosophical position. To them, pantheism is the view that the Universe and God are identical.;[8] in other words: that the Universe (with all its divine extensions, planets, suns, galaxies, thrones and creatures) is what people and religions call "God".

History

The first known use of the term pantheism was by the English mathematician Joseph Raphson in his work De spatio reali, written in Latin and published in 1697.[9] In De spatio reali, Raphson begins with a distinction between atheistic ‘panhylists’ (from the Greek roots pan, "all", and hyle, "matter"), who believe everything is matter, and ‘pantheists’ who believe in “a certain universal substance, material as well as intelligent, that fashions all things that exist out of its own essence.”[10] [11] Raphson found the universe to be immeasurable in respect to a human's capacity of understanding, and believed that humans would never be able to comprehend it.[12]

The term was borrowed and first used in English by the Irish writer John Toland in his work of 1705 Socinianism Truly Stated, by a pantheist. John Toland was influenced by both Spinoza and Bruno, and used the terms 'pantheist' and 'Spinozist' interchangeably.[13] In 1720 he wrote the Pantheisticon: or The Form of Celebrating the Socratic-Society in Latin, envisioning a pantheist society which believed, "all things in the world are one, and one is all in all things ... what is all in all things is God, eternal and immense, neither born nor ever to perish."[14][15] He clarified his idea of pantheism in a letter to Gottfried Leibniz in 1710 when he referred to "the pantheistic opinion of those who believe in no other eternal being but the universe".[16][17][18]

Although the term "pantheism" did not exist before the 17th century, various pre-Christian religions and philosophies can be regarded as pantheistic. Pantheism is similar to the ancient Hindu philosophy of Advaita (non-dualism) to the extent that the 19th-century German Sanskritist Theodore Goldstücker remarked that Spinoza's thought was "... a western system of philosophy which occupies a foremost rank amongst the philosophies of all nations and ages, and which is so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus."[19]

Others include some of the Presocratics, such as Heraclitus and Anaximander.[20] The Stoics were pantheists, beginning with Zeno of Citium and culminating in the emperor-philosopher Marcus Aurelius. During the pre-Christian Roman Empire, Stoicism was one of the three dominant schools of philosophy, along with Epicureanism and Neoplatonism.[21][22] The early Taoism of Lao Zi and Zhuangzi is also sometimes considered pantheistic.[18]

The philosophy of Baruch Spinoza is often regarded as pantheism, although he did not use that term.[4][23]

The Catholic church regarded pantheism as heresy.[24] Giordano Bruno, an Italian monk who was burned at the stake in 1600 for heresy, is considered by some to be a pantheist.[25] Baruch Spinoza's Ethics, finished in 1675, was the major source from which pantheism spread.[26]

In 1785, a major controversy about Spinoza's philosophy between Friedrich Jacobi, a critic, and Moses Mendelssohn, a defender, known in German as the Pantheismus-Streit, helped to spread pantheism to many German thinkers in the late 18th and 19th centuries.[27]

For a time during the 19th century pantheism was the theological viewpoint of many leading writers and philosophers, attracting figures such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge in Britain; Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in Germany; and Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau in the United States. Seen as a growing threat by the Vatican, it came under attack 1862 in the Syllabus of Errors of Pius IX.[28]

In the mid-eighteenth century, the English theologian Daniel Waterland defined pantheism as: "It supposes God and nature, or God and the whole universe, to be one and the same substance—one universal being; insomuch that men's souls are only modifications of the divine substance."[29][30] In the early nineteenth century, the German theologian Julius Wegscheider defined pantheism as the belief that God and the world established by God are one and the same.[29][31]

In the late 20th century, pantheism was often declared to be the underlying theology of Neopaganism,[32] and Pantheists began forming organizations devoted specifically to Pantheism and treating it as a separate religion.[18]

Recent developments

Albert Einstein is considered to be a pantheist by some commentators.

In 2008, one of Albert Einstein's letters, written in 1954 in German, in which he dismissed belief in a personal God, was sold at auction for more than US$330,000. Einstein wrote, "We followers of Spinoza see our God in the wonderful order and lawfulness of all that exists and in its soul ["Beseeltheit"] as it reveals itself in man and animal," in a letter to Eduard Büsching (25 October 1929) after Büsching sent Einstein a copy of his book Es gibt keinen Gott. Einstein responded that the book only dealt with the concept of a personal God and not the impersonal God of pantheism. "I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly," he wrote in another letter in 1954.[33]

Pantheism is mentioned in a Papal encyclical in 2009[34] and a statement on New Year's Day in 2010,[35] criticizing pantheism for denying the superiority of humans over nature and "seeing the source of man's salvation in nature".[34] In a review of the 2009 film Avatar, Ross Douthat, an author, described pantheism as "Hollywood’s religion of choice for a generation now".[36]

In 2011, a letter written in 1886 by William Herndon, Abraham Lincoln's law partner, was sold at auction for US$30,000.[37] In it, Herndon writes of the U.S. President's evolving religious views, which included pantheism.

"Mr. Lincoln’s religion is too well known to me to allow of even a shadow of a doubt; he is or was a Theist and a Rationalist, denying all extraordinary – supernatural inspiration or revelation. At one time in his life, to say the least, he was an elevated Pantheist, doubting the immortality of the soul as the Christian world understands that term. He believed that the soul lost its identity and was immortal as a force. Subsequent to this he rose to the belief of a God, and this is all the change he ever underwent."[37][38]

The subject is understandably controversial, but the contents of the letter is consistent with Lincoln's fairly lukewarm approach to organized religion.[38]

Categorizations

There are multiple varieties of pantheism[39]: 3  which have been placed along various spectra or in discrete categories.

Degree of determinism

The American philosopher Charles Hartshorne used the term Classical Pantheism to describe the deterministic philosophies of Baruch Spinoza, the Stoics, and other like-minded figures.[40] Pantheism (All-is-God) is often associated with monism (All-is-One) and some have suggested that it logically implies determinism (All-is-Now).[41][42][43][44] Albert Einstein explained theological determinism by stating,[45] "the past, present, and future are an 'illusion'". This form of pantheism has been referred to as "extreme monism", in which – in the words of one commentator – "God decides or determines everything, including our supposed decisions."[46] Other examples of determinism-inclined pantheisms include those of Ralph Waldo Emerson,[47] and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.[48]

However, some have argued against treating every meaning of "unity" as an aspect of pantheism,[49] and there exist versions of pantheism that regard determinism as an inaccurate or incomplete view of nature. Examples include the beliefs of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and William James.[50]

Degree of belief

It may also be possible to distinguish two types of pantheism, one being more religious and the other being more philosophical. The Columbia Encyclopedia writes of the distinction:

"If the pantheist starts with the belief that the one great reality, eternal and infinite, is God, he sees everything finite and temporal as but some part of God. There is nothing separate or distinct from God, for God is the universe. If, on the other hand, the conception taken as the foundation of the system is that the great inclusive unity is the world itself, or the universe, God is swallowed up in that unity, which may be designated nature."[51]

Religious inclined pantheisms include some forms of Hinduism while philosophical inclined pantheisms include Stoicism.

Other

In 1896, J. H. Worman, a theologian, identified seven categories of pantheism: Mechanical or materialistic (God the mechanical unity of existence); Ontological (fundamental unity, Spinoza); Dynamic; Psychical (God is the soul of the world); Ethical (God is the universal moral order, Johann Gottlieb Fichte); Logical (Hegel); and Pure (absorption of God into nature, which Worman equates with atheism).[29]

More recently, Paul D. Feinberg, professor of biblical and systematic theology at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, also identified seven categories of pantheism: Hylozoistic; Immanentistic; Absolutistic monistic; Relativistic monistic; Acosmic; Identity of opposites; and Neoplatonic or emanationistic.[52]

Pantheism in religion

Philosopher Michael Levine has said that there may be more pantheists than theists worldwide.[53]: p.14  There are elements of pantheism in some forms of Christianity,[54][55][56] Islam (Sufism), Buddhism, Judaism, Gnosticism, Neopaganism, and Theosophy as well as in several tendencies in many theistic religions. The Islamic religious tradition, in particular Sufism and Alevism, has a strong belief in the unitary nature of the universe and the concept that everything in it is an aspect of God itself, although their perspective, like many traditional perspectives, may lean closer to panentheism. Many other traditional and folk religions including African traditional religions[57] and Native American religions[53]: p.67 [58] can be seen as pantheistic, or a mixture of pantheism and other doctrines such as polytheism and animism. A variety of modern paganists also hold pantheistic views.[59]

Hinduism

It is generally regarded that Hindu religious texts are the oldest known literature containing pantheistic ideas.[5] The Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism teaches that the Atman (true self; human soul) is indistinct from Brahman (the unknown reality of everything).[60] The branches of Hinduism teaching forms of pantheism are known as non-dualist schools.[61]

Within Hinduism, there are different approaches to reaching the Divine based on an individual’s own characteristics. This idea of pantheism is traceable from the Puranas which are the nearest allegorical representations created for the masses whereas Vedas were for the highly literate. All Mahāvākyas (Great Sayings) of the Upanishads, in one way or another, seem to indicate the unity of the world with the Brahman.[62] It further says, "This whole universe is Brahman, from Brahman to a clod of earth."[63]

Taoism

In the tradition of its leading thinkers Lao Tzu and Zhuangzi, Taoism is comparable with pantheism, as the Tao is always spoken of with profound religious reverence and respect, similar to the way that pantheism discusses the "God" that is everything. The Tao te Ching never speaks of a transcendent God, but of a mysterious and numinous ground of being underlying all things. Zhuangzi emphasized the pantheistic content of Taoism even more clearly: "Heaven and I were created together, and all things and I are one." When Tung Kuo Tzu asked Zhuangzi where the Tao was, he replied that it was in the ant, the grass, the clay tile, even in excrement: "There is nowhere where it is not… There is not a single thing without Tao."[64]

Organizations

File:Panthéisme.JPG
Spiral image symbols favored by the World Pantheist Movement

Two organizations that specify the word pantheism in their title formed in the last quarter of the 20th century. The Universal Pantheist Society, open to all varieties of pantheists and supportive of environmental causes, was founded in 1975.[65] The World Pantheist Movement is headed by Paul Harrison, an environmentalist, writer and a former vice president of the Universal Pantheist Society, from which he resigned in 1996. The World Pantheist Movement was incorporated in 1999 to focus exclusively on promoting a naturalistic version of pantheism,[66] considered by some a form of religious naturalism.[67] It has been described as an example of "dark green religion" with a focus on environmental ethics.[68]

Nature worship or nature mysticism is often conflated and confused with pantheism. It is pointed out by at least one expert in pantheist philosophy that Spinoza’s identification of God with nature is very different from a recent idea of a self identifying pantheist with environmental ethical concerns, Harold Wood, founder of the Universal Pantheist Society. His use of the word nature to describe his worldview is suggested to be vastly different than the "nature" of modern sciences. He and other nature mystics who also identify as pantheists use "nature" to refer to the limited natural environment (as opposed to man-made built environment). This use of "nature" is different than the broader use from Spinoza and other pantheists describing natural laws and the overall phenomena of the physical world. Nature mysticism may be compatible with pantheism but it may also be compatible with theism and other views.[69]

Panentheism (from Greek πᾶν (pân) "all"; ἐν (en) "in"; and θεός (theós) "God"; "all-in-God") was formally coined in Germany in the 19th century in an attempt to offer a philosophical synthesis between traditional theism and pantheism, stating that God is substantially omnipresent in the physical universe but also exists "apart from" or "beyond" it as its Creator and Sustainer.[70]: p.27  Thus panentheism separates itself from pantheism, positing the extra claim that God exists above and beyond the world as we know it.[53]: p.11  The line between pantheism and panentheism can be blurred depending on varying definitions of God, so there have been disagreements when assigning particular notable figures to pantheism or panentheism.[70]: pp. 71–72, 87–88, 105 [71]

Pandeism is another word derived from pantheism and is characterized as a combination of reconcilable elements of pantheism and deism.[72] It assumes a Creator-deity which is at some point distinct from the universe and then merges with it, resulting in a universe similar to the pantheistic one in present essence, but differing in origin.

Panpsychism is the philosophical view held by many pantheists that consciousness, mind, or soul is a universal feature of all things.[73] Some pantheists also subscribe to the distinct philosophical views hylozoism (or panvitalism), the view that everything is alive, and its close neighbor animism, the view that everything has a soul or spirit.[74]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ The New Oxford Dictionary Of English. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1998. p. 1341. ISBN 0-19-861263-X.
  2. ^ a b Encyclopedia of Philosophy ed. Paul Edwards. New York: Macmillan and Free Press. 1967. p. 34.
  3. ^ A Companion to Philosophy of Religion edited by Charles Taliaferro, Paul Draper, Philip L. Quinn, p.340 "They deny that God is "totally other" than the world or ontologically distinct from it."
  4. ^ a b c Picton, James Allanson (1905). Pantheism: its story and significance. Chicago: Archibald Constable & CO LTD. ISBN 978-1419140082.
  5. ^ a b c d Plumptre, Constance (1879). General sketch of the history of pantheism, Volume 2. London: Samuel Deacon and Co. pp. 3–5, 8, 29. ISBN 9780766155022. Cite error: The named reference "Plumptre" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  6. ^ Shoham, Schlomo Giora (2010). To Test the Limits of Our Endurance. Cambridge Scholars. p. 111. ISBN 1443820687.
  7. ^ Owen, H. P. Concepts of Deity. London: Macmillan, 1971, p. 65.
  8. ^ The New Oxford Dictionary Of English. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1998. p. 1341. ISBN 0-19-861263-X.
  9. ^ Ann Thomson; Bodies of Thought: Science, Religion, and the Soul in the Early Enlightenment, 2008, page 54.
  10. ^ Raphson, Joseph (1697). De spatio reali (in Latin). Londini. p. 2.
  11. ^ Suttle, Gary. "Joseph Raphson: 1648–1715". Pantheist Association for Nature. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
  12. ^ Koyré, Alexander (1957). From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press. pp. 190–204. ISBN 0801803470.
  13. ^ R.E. Sullivan, "John Toland and the Deist controversy: A Study in Adaptations", Harvard University Press, 1982, p. 193
  14. ^ Harrison, Paul. "Toland: The father of modern pantheism". Pantheist History. World Pantheist Movement. Retrieved 5 September 2012.
  15. ^ Toland, John, Pantheisticon, 1720; reprint of the 1751 edition, New York and London: Garland, 1976, p 54
  16. ^ Honderich, Ted, The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995, p.641: "First used by John Toland in 1705, the term 'pantheist' designates one who holds both that everything there is constitutes a unity and that this unity is divine."
  17. ^ Thompson, Ann, Bodies of Thought: Science, Religion, and the Soul in the Early Enlightenment, Oxford University Press, 2008, p 133, ISBN 9780199236190
  18. ^ a b c Paul Harrison, Elements of Pantheism, 1999.
  19. ^ Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32.
  20. ^ Thilly, Frank, "Pantheism", in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 18, Hastings, James (Ed.), Kessinger Publishing, 2003 (reprint, originally published 1908), p 614, ISBN 9780766136953.
  21. ^ Armstrong, AH (1967). The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57, 60, 161, 186, 222. ISBN 978052104-0549.
  22. ^ McLynn, Frank (2010). Marcus Aurelius: A Life. Da Capo Press. p. 232. ISBN 9780306819162.
  23. ^ *Fraser, Alexander Campbell "Philosophy of Theism", William Blackwood and Sons, 1895, p 163.
  24. ^ Collinge, William, Historical Dictionary of Catholicism, Scarecrow Press, 2012, p 188, ISBN 9780810879799.
  25. ^ McIntyre, James Lewis, Giordano Bruno, Macmillan, 1903, p 316.
  26. ^ Genevieve Lloyd, Routledge Philosophy GuideBook to Spinoza and The Ethics (Routledge Philosophy Guidebooks), Routledge; 1 edition (2 October 1996), ISBN 978-0-415-10782-2, Page: 24
  27. ^ Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (plato.stanford.edu).
  28. ^ Syllabus of Errors 1.1 (papalencyclicals.net).
  29. ^ a b c Worman, J. H., "Pantheism", in Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, Volume 1, John McClintock, James Strong (Eds), Harper & Brothers, 1896, pp 616–624.
  30. ^ Worman cites Waterland, Works, viii, p 81.
  31. ^ Worman cites Wegscheider, Inst 57, p 250.
  32. ^ Margot Adler, Drawing Down the Moon, Beacon Press, 1986.
  33. ^ "Belief in God a 'product of human weaknesses': Einstein letter". CBC Canada. 2008-05-13. Retrieved 2011-08-31.
  34. ^ a b Caritas In Veritate, 7 July 2009.
  35. ^ "Message of His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI For The Celebration Of The World Day Of Peace".
  36. ^ Heaven and Nature, Ross Douthat, New York Times, 20 December 2009
  37. ^ a b Herndon, William (4 February 1866). "Sold – Herndon's Revelations on Lincoln's Religion" (Excerpt and review). Raab Collection. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
  38. ^ a b Adams, Guy (17 April 2011). "'Pantheist' Lincoln would be unelectable today". The Independent. Los Angeles. Retrieved 5 June 2012. {{cite news}}: Check |authorlink= value (help); External link in |authorlink= (help)
  39. ^ Levine, Michael. "Pantheism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  40. ^ Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, ed. (1953). Philosophers Speak of God. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 165–210.
  41. ^ Goldsmith, Donald (2006). E = Einstein: His Life, His Thought, and His Influence on Our Culture. New York: Stirling Publishing. p. 187. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ F.C. Copleston, "Pantheism in Spinoza and the German Idealists," Philosophy 21, 1946, p. 48
  43. ^ Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, "Proceedings of the Liverpool Literary & Philosophical Society, Volumes 43–44", 1889, p 285
  44. ^ John Ferguson, "The Religions of the Roman Empire", Cornell University Press, 1970, p 193
  45. ^ Isaacson, Walter (2007). Einstein: His Life and Universe. Simon and Schuster. p. 391. p. 391 "I am a determinist"
  46. ^ Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion: Volume 10 (2nd ed.). USA: MacMillan. ISBN 0028657330.
  47. ^ Dependence and Freedom: The Moral Thought of Horace Bushnell By David Wayne Haddorff [1] Emerson's belief was "monistic determinism".
    • Creatures of Prometheus: Gender and the Politics of Technology By Timothy Vance Kaufman-Osborn, Prometheus ((Writer)) [2] "Things are in a saddle, and ride mankind."
    • Emerson's position is "soft determinism" (a variant of determinism) [3]
    • "The 'fate' Emerson identifies is an underlying determinism." (Fate is one of Emerson's essays) [4]
  48. ^ "Hegel was a determinist" (also called a combatibilist a.k.a. soft determinist) [5]
    • "Hegel and Marx are usually cited as the greatest proponents of historical determinism" [6]
  49. ^ Levine, Michael P. (August 1992). "Pantheism, substance and unity". International Journal for Philosophy of Religion. 32: 1–23. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
  50. ^
    • Theories of the will in the history of philosophy By Archibald Alexander p 307 Schelling holds "that the will is not determined but self-determined." [7]
    • The Dynamic Individualism of William James by James O. Pawelski p 17 "[His] fight against determinism" "My first act of free will shall be to believe in free will." [8]
  51. ^ "Pantheism". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press. 2012. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  52. ^ Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, edited by Walter A. Elwell, p. 887
  53. ^ a b c Levine, Michael Philip (1994). Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity.
  54. ^ Harrison, Paul. "The origins of Christian pantheism". Pantheist history. World Pantheists Movement. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  55. ^ Fox, Michael W. "Christianity and Pantheism". Universal Pantheist Society. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  56. ^ Zaleha, Bernard. "Recovering Christian Pantheism as the Lost Gospel of Creation". Fund for Christian Ecology, Inc. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  57. ^ Parrinder, EG (1970). "Monotheism and Pantheism in Africa". Journal of Religion in Africa. 3: 81–88. Retrieved 26 September 2012.
  58. ^ Harrison, Paul. "North American Indians: the spirituality of nature". World Pantheist Movement. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
  59. ^ Carpenter, Dennis D. (1996). "Emergent Nature Spirituality: An Examination of the Major Spiritual Contours of the Contemporary Pagan Worldview". In Lewis, James R.. Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2890-0. p 50
  60. ^ Vivekananda, 1987
  61. ^ Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994), The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion, Seattle, WA: Viveka Press, ISBN 1-884852-02-5
  62. ^ "A Survey of Hinduism: First Edition", by Klaus K. Klostermaier, p. 201
  63. ^ "Hindu Literature: Or the Ancient Books of India", P.115, by Elizabeth A. Reed
  64. ^ Chuang Tzu – The butterfly philosopher (pantheism.net).
  65. ^ "Home page". Universal Pantheist Society. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  66. ^ World Pantheist Movement. "Naturalism and Religion: can there be a naturalistic & scientific spirituality?". Retrieved 4 September 2012.
  67. ^ Stone, Jerome Arthur (2008). Religious Naturalism Today: The Rebirth of a Forgotten Alternative. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 10. ISBN 0791475379.
  68. ^ Bron Raymond Taylor, "Dark Green Religion: Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future", University of California Press 2010, pp 159–160.
  69. ^ Levine, Michael, Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity, Psychology Press, 1994, ISBN 9780415070645, pgs 44, 274-275.
    • "The idea that Unity that is rooted in nature is what types of nature mysticism (e.g. Wordsworth and Robinson Jeffers, Gary Snyder) have in common with more philosophically robust versions of pantheism. It is why nature mysticism and philosophical pantheism are often conflated and confused for one another."
    • "[Wood's] pantheism is distant from Spinoza’s identification of God with nature, and much closer to nature mysticism. In fact it is nature mysticism
    • "Nature mysticism, however, is as compatible with theism as it is with pantheism."
    • "Surely what Wood understands by “nature,” its value etc., is vastly different from “nature” as seen by the natural sciences."
  70. ^ a b John W. Cooper, The Other God of the Philosophers, Baker Academic, 2006
  71. ^ Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Genealogy to Iqbal edited by Edward Craig, pg 100 [9].
  72. ^ Sean F. Johnston (2009). The History of Science: A Beginner's Guide. p. 90. ISBN 1-85168-681-9.
  73. ^ Seager, William and Allen-Hermanson, Sean, "Panpsychism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/panpsychism/
  74. ^ Haught, John F. (1990). What Is Religion?: An Introduction. Paulist Press. p. 19.

Further reading

  • Amryc, C. Pantheism: The Light and Hope of Modern Reason, 1898. online
  • Harrison, Paul, Elements of Pantheism, Element Press, 1999. preview
  • Hunt, John, Pantheism and Christianity, William Isbister Limited, 1884. online
  • Levine, Michael, Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity, Psychology Press, 1994, ISBN 9780415070645
  • Picton, James Allanson, Pantheism: Its story and significance, Archibald Constable & Co., 1905. online.
  • Plumptre, Constance E., General Sketch of the History of Pantheism, Cambridge University Press, 2011 (reprint, originally published 1879), ISBN 9781108028028 online
  • Russell, Sharman Apt, Standing in the Light: My Life as a Pantheist, Basic Books, 2008, ISBN 0465005179
  • Urquhart, W. S. Pantheism and the Value of Life, 1919. online
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