User:XSAMPA/Comparison of Mid-Atlantic accent and American English

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Consonants

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A table containing the consonant phonemes is given below:

Consonant phonemes
Labial Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ
Stop p b t d k ɡ
Affricate
Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
Approximant l ɹ j (ʍ) w

Wine-whine distinction

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The Mid-Atlantic accent lacks the Winewhine merger: The consonants spelled w and wh are pronounced differently; words spelled with wh are pronounced as "hw" (/ʍ/).

Unlike General American which is firmly rhotic, pronouncing the r sound in all environments, including after vowels, such as in pearl, car, and court,[1][2] in Mid-Atlantic /r/ is only pronounced when it is immediately followed by a vowel sound. Where GA pronounces /r/ before a consonant and at the end of an utterance, Mid-Atlantic either has nothing (if the preceding vowel is /ɔː/) or has a schwa instead (the resulting sequences are diphthongs or triphthongs). Similarly, where GA has r-coloured vowels (/ɚ/ or /ɝ/, as in cupboard or bird), Mid-Atlantic has plain vowels /ə/ or /ɜː/. Linking R is used, but intrusive R is not permitted.[3]

Pronunciation of T

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T is pronounced as a glottal stop (transcribed as: [ʔ]) only if it is followed by a consonant. Thus mountain and grateful are often pronounced [ˈmæʊnʔn̩] and [ˈgɹeɪʔfɫ̩] , respectively. Otherwise, it is pronounced as a "t". In most American dialects, it is also pronounced as a glottal stop if it comes before a syllabic nasal such as in button [ˈbʌ̈ʔn] , and sometimes at the end of a word, as in what [wʌ̈ʔ]. /t/ and /d/ become an alveolar flap, written [ɾ] , which is perceived as a "d" sound between vowels or liquids (l and r), as in water [ˈwɑɾɚ] (listen), party [ˈpʰɑɹɾi] , community [k(ə)ˈmjunəɾi] . The flap may even appear at word boundaries, as in put it on. When the /t/ comes after an /n/, some American speakers pronounce it as a nasalized flap that may become indistinguishable from /n/, so winter [ˈwɪɾ̃ɚ] may be pronounced similarly or identically to winner [ˈwɪnɚ].[4]

After alveolar consonants /tj/, /dj/, /nj/, and optionally /sj/ and /lj/[5] (as in tune, due, new, pursue, evolution), the "y" sound /j/ is preserved in Mid-Atlantic, as in Received Pronunciation. Most American dialects drop it in many words, for example, new ("nyoo") /nj/ becomes ("noo") [nu̟ː], duke /djk/ becomes [du̟ːk], and tube /tjb/ becomes [tʰu̟ːb].[6]

H voicing

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/h/ may be voiced ([ɦ]) between two vowel sounds.

Vowels

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Monophthongs of Mid-Atlantic English. From Fletcher (2013, p. 25) harvtxt error: multiple targets (5×): CITEREFFletcher2013 (help)

Monophthongs[7]

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Front Central Back
long short long short long short
Close ɪ ʊ
Mid e ɜː ə* ɔː o*
Near-open æ ʌ
Open a ɑː ɒ

* only occurs in unstressed syllables

Open to Open-mid Monophthongs
Example IPA Western American General American Inland Northern New York Boston Mid-Atlantic[8] Received Pronunciation
bath /ɑː/ [æ] [æ~ɛə~eə]

[9][10](listen)

[æ] [ɛə~æ~ä(:)] [a] (listen) [ɑː]
ban, tram /æ/ [æ~ɛə~eə] [ɪə~eə~ɛə] [eə~ɛə] [æ] (listen) [æ~a]
bat /æ/ [æ] [æ] [ɛə~æ]
father, ah, spa /ɑː/ [ɑ](listen) or

[ɒ] (listen)

[ɑ] (listen) [ɑ](listen) or

[a] (listen)

[ä] [ä(:)] [ɑː] (listen) [ɑː]
lot, bother, wasp /ɒ/ [ɒː~ɑː] [ɒ] (listen) [ɒ]
boss, dog, off [ɒ] (listen) [ɒ] (listen) or

[ɑ] (listen)

[ɔə~oə~ʊə] [ɒ~ɔː]
bought, all, water /ɔː/ [ɔː] (listen) [ɔː~o:]

Lexical sets

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sorry florida glory
borrow, morrow, sorry, sorrow, tomorrow corridor, coronation, euphoric, foreign, forest, Florida, historic, horrible, majority, minority, moral, orange, Oregon, origin, porridge, priority, quarantine, quarrel, sorority, warranty, warren, warrior, Warrington aura, boring, choral, deplorable, flooring, flora, glory, hoary, memorial, menorah, Moorish, oral, pouring, scorer, storage, story, Tory, warring
Can be either: orient, orientation

A commonly used system of lexical sets, due to John C. Wells, is presented below; for each set, the corresponding phonemes are given for Mid-Atlantic (first column) and General American (second column)

TRAP æ
BATH a æ
PALM ɑː ɑː
LOT ɒ
CLOTH ɔː
THOUGHT ɔː
KIT ɪ
FLEECE
DRESS ɛ
STRUT ʌ
FOOT ʊ
GOOSE
FACE
PRICE
CHOICE ɔɪ
GOAT
MOUTH
NURSE ɜː(r) ɜːr
START ɑː(r) ɑːr
NORTH ɔː(r) ɔːr
FORCE ɔːr, oʊr
NEAR ɪə(r) ɪr
SQUARE eə(r) ɛr
CURE ʊə(r) ʊr
COMMA ə
LETTER ə(r) ər
HAPPY ɪ i

Distinctions

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The Mid-Atlantic accent distinguishes more open to open-mid monophthongs than both American dialects and British Received Pronunciation. The vowel in father [ɑ:](listen) is distinguished from the vowel in cot [ɒ] (listen), which is distinguished from the vowel in caught [ɔː] (listen). The vowel in trap [æ] (listen) is distinguished from the vowel in bath [a] (listen) (a compromise vowel in between General American [æ] and British Received Pronunciation [ɑː]), which is distinguished from the vowel in cart [ɑː] (the same vowel as in father [ɑ:] (listen)).

Bath-Trap split

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bath set /a/ trap set /æ/ bank set /æ/ angel set
example, sample, advantage, aunt, can't*, chant, grant, plant, slant, vantage, command, demand, Flanders, remand, reprimand, slander, avalanche, blanch, branch, ranch*, stanch, stanchion, answer*, chance, chancellor, dance, enhance, France, lance, lancet, prance, stance, trance, transfer (trans-), pyjamas champion, rampant, stamp*, amber, pamphlet, ant*, lantern, phantom, rant, scant, abandon, grand, random, franchise, evangelist, phalange, bank ("bench/financial institution"), canker, flank, plank, ranco(u)r, sanctity, anger*, angle, strangle, ancestor, finance, ransom, romance, salmon bank, thank, plank, dank, sank, rang, rank, flank chamber, angel, arrange, change, danger, grange, mange, range, strange, ancient

Unlike in General American, in some words, the "a" vowel (as in bath) is pronounced as [a] (listen) in the "bath" set, and as [æ] (listen) in the "trap" set. The list of words which use [a] rather than [æ] must simply be learned, because the spelling of the word does not indicate which vowel to use. Less commonly used words are more likely to be part of the trap set, as well with words with more than one syllables. The change very rarely took place in open syllables, except where closely derived from another word with /a/. Thus passing is closely derived from pass, and so has /a/; passage is not so closely derived, and thus has /æ/ /pæsɪdʒ/

Bath vowel
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Unlike Received Pronunciation, instead of the father vowel [ɑː], or the General American [æ], the compromise vowel [a] (listen) is used for the "broad A" (the "pass" vowel) because it sounds midway between [ɑː] and [æ] (listen) which is contrasted with the father vowel [ɑː]. Thus the Mid-Atlantic has an additional phoneme compared to Received Pronunciation. The [a] vowel does not exist in many varieties of American English. It is used sporadically by speakers with the California vowel shift or the Canadian Shift for the "map" vowel, and sporadically for speakers in the Midwest with the Northern Cities Vowel Shift for the "mop" vowel. It is the same as the [a] in the Spanish word "casa".

Trap vowel
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Unlike most varieties of American English, the vowel sound in the "trap" /æ/ set does not undergo Æ tensing before nasals (n, m, ng) or other consonants, and does not raise before [g]. Thus, "bad", "bag", "ban", and "bank" all have the same vowel. This can be learned by practicing saying [æ] without anticipating the following sound and then adding the consonant. Unlike most dialects of English, the Mid-Atlantic accent does not nasalize vowels before nasal consonants.

Ah, short o and aw vowels

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father set palm set cot set cloth set thought set
father, spa, ah alms, balm, calm, palm, psalm, qualm[10] cot, tot, sot, dot, not cloth, off, often, long, dog, chocolate shawm, daunt, flaunt*, gaunt*, gauntlet, haunt, jaunt*, saunter, taunt, vaunt, jaundice, laundry, Maundy, haunch, launch, paunch, staunch, launce

Words in the cloth set are followed by the fricatives /f/, /θ/ and /s/. In American English the raising was extended to the environment before /ŋ/ and /ɡ/, and in a few words before /k/ as well, giving pronunciations like [lɒːŋ] for long, [dɒːɡ] for dog and [ˈtʃɒːklᵻt] for chocolate.

father set [ɑː]

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The "ah" [ɑː] vowel as in "ah" or "father" is pronounced without any lip rounding, and is held for twice as long as the short o vowel in words such as "cot", Unlike most American dialects, it is distinguished from the vowel used in "cot", because in the Mid-Atlantic accent the "cot" vowel is rounded and pronounced for half the duration. Most American dialects use this same vowel in both "father", and "cot".

cot and cloth sets [ɒ]

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Words spelled with "o" as in "cot" [ˈkʰɒt] (listen) are pronounced with rounded lips. "Cot" is pronounced with the same vowel that is used in "cloth", and "off" (but not caught [ˈkʰɔːt] (listen) which uses a different vowel in the Mid-Atlantic accent.) Most American dialects on the other hand either use one vowel for the cot set (varies between [ɑ(:)] and [ä]), and merge the cloth vowel with the thought vowel (varies between [ɒ(:)] and [ɑ(:)] , or merge all three sets together, making no distinction whatsoever between the vowel used in cot, cloth, and thought, in which case the vowel used can vary between [ä], [ɑ(:)], [ɒ(:)] and, [ɔ(ː)].

thought set [ɔː]

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Words spelled with "aw" (as in caw), "au" (as in "caught" [ˈkʰɔːt] (listen), and sometimes "ou" (as in "thought") are pronounced with the [ɔ:] vowel, and thus are distinguished from words like "cot". This vowel is pronounced with the back of the tongue higher in the mouth than the "cot" vowel, and the lips are rounded. It is also pronounced for a longer duration. Words spelled with an "o" such as "cloth", and "off" do not use this vowel.

Other Monophthongs
Example General American Mid-Atlantic Received Pronunciation
obey (unstressed) /ə/ [ə], [oʊ] [o][11] (listen) [ə] or [əʊ]
met, dress, bread /ɛ/ [ɛ] (listen) [ɛ] (listen) [ɛ]
about, syrup /ə/ [ə] [ə] [ə]
kit, pink, tip /ɪ/ [ɪ] (listen) [ɪ] (listen) [ɪ]
beam, chic /iː/ [i(ː)] (listen) [iː] (listen) [iː]
happy, parties /i/ [i] (listen) [ɪ] (listen) [ɪ~i]
muffin, wasted /ɨ/ [ɪ̈~ɪ~ə] [ɪ] [ɪ~ə]
bus, flood /ʌ/ [ʌ~ɐ] [ʌ] [ʌ]
put, could /ʊ/ [ʊ] [ʊ] [ʊ]
goose, moon /uː/ [u̟ː~ʊu~ʉu~ɵu] [u] [u~ʉ]
tune, dune, news /juː/ [(j)u̟ː~(j)ʊu~(j)ʉu~(j)ɵu] [juː] [juː~jʉ]

Moon vowel [u]

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Protruded rounding (example 1)
Protruded rounding (example 2)

The "oo" vowel as in "moon", is pronounced with protruded rounded lips. It is pronounced the same as the vowel in the Spanish word "un". The corners of the mouth are drawn together and the lips protrude like a tube, with their inner surface visible. The tongue is positioned as close as possible to the roof of the mouth, as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction. American dialects such as California English, Southern American English, and many other American dialects use less lip rounding and the back of the tongue is further forward in the mouth, however some American dialects such as Inland Northern American English have the more conservative rounded vowel.

Look vowel [ʊ]

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The vowel in look is pronounced as [ʊ], and like the moon vowel also has protruded rounded lips.

Happy vowel [ɪ]

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Mid-Atlantic English lacks "happy tensing". That means that the vowel /i/ at the end of words such as "happy" ['hæpɪ] (listen), "Charlie", "sherry", "coffee" is pronounced with the SIT vowel [ɪ], rather than the SEAT vowel [i:]. This also extends to "i", "y", and sometimes "e", "ie", and "ee" in other positions in words. For example, the sit vowel is used in remark, and because, serious, variable.[12] Most American dialects use the SEAT vowel [i:].

Mirror-nearer distinction
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mirror set ear set [ɪə]
mirror, Sirius ear, near,nearer, dear, fear, beer, serious

In many American dialects, words in the ear set are pronounced with either the sit vowel [ɪ] or the seat vowel [i]. However in the Mid-Atlantic accent, they are pronounced with the sit vowel [ɪ] followed by a schwa [ə] (pronounced like the "e" in the word "the"): [ɪə]. Thus ear is pronounced as ['ɪə]. "Nearer" is pronounced as ['nɪəɹə].

On the other hand, words in the In mirror set are pronounced with the sit vowel [ɪ] with no schwa [ə]. The word "mirror" is pronounced as ['mɪɹə] (mih-ruh), rather than as one syllable ['mɪɹ], as it is pronounced in some American dialects.

/ɛ/ and /ɪ/

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Like most American dialects and Received pronunciation, the Mid-Atlantic accent distinguishes the vowels in "pin" and "pen" and thus pronounces /ɛ/ before nasals as [ɛ], and /ɪ/ as [ɪ].

Lennon-Lenin distinction

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The vowels in "Lennon" and "Lenin" are distinguished. "Lennon" has the vowel in the [ə], and Lennin has a shorter version of the vowel in "it", often transcribed as [ɨ]

[ə] [ɪ]
Rosa's roses
abbot rabbit
Lennon Lenin

Mary-marry-merry distinction

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In the Mid-Atlantic accent, the vowels in "Mary", "marry", and "merry" are all distinct. On the other hand, General American uses the same vowel [ɛ], in all three words. 57% of all Americans merge all three vowels, and the majority of the rest merge two of them.[13] In the Mid-Atlantic accent words in the Mary set are pronounced with the vowel in "met", followed by the vowel in "uh": [ɛəɹ]; words in the "marry" set use the vowel in "mat" [æ]. Words in the "merry" set, like in most American dialects, use the vowel in "met" [ɛɹ].

Mary set [ɛəɹ][12] marry set [æɹ][12] merry set [ɛɹ][12]
Mary, Sarah, compare, parent, Cary (surname). dairy, fairly, fair, dare, square, overbearing, repair, scary marry, arable, arid, baron, barrel, barren, carry, carrot, chariot, charity, clarity, Harry, Larry, marry, marriage, paragon, parry, parody, parrot, arrow, arrogance, carol merry, Terry,

Kerry, ferry, terrible,

vary, variable, various marionette, maritime, parish, very
compare comparative, comparison
Gary, Karen, Cary (first name)

In general, words containing -are (not including the word "are"), -ary, -air, ear (not including the word "ear") are in the Mary set. Otherwise an "a" followed by two rs, or an "a" followed by one r (not including the word "are") followed by another vowel besides "y" or "e", is part of the marry set and in the Mid-Atlantic accent is pronounced with the vowel in "mat". There are some exceptions, especially with names.

Distinctions before /l/

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The "up" vowel [ʌ] is used in "gulf", "hull", "dull". This can be learned by practicing saying the "uh" vowel [ʌ] without anticipating the following sound and then adding the "L". The vowel in "look" [ʊ] is used for the "bull" vowel. The Some American dialects use other vowels for some of the words in this set.

  • /ʊl/ and /ol/ (bull vs bowl)
  • /ʌl/ and /ɔ:l/ (hull vs hall)
  • /ʊl/ and /ʌl/ (bull vs hull)
  • /ʌl/ and /ol/ (hull vs hole)

Hurry-furry distinction

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hurry set furry set
hurry, turret, thorough [ˈθʌɹə], current, curry fur+ry, blur+ry, stir

Like some Northeastern American dialects, the vowel in words like "hurry" is the same vowel in up, and thus "hurry" does not rhyme with "furry". (listen)

Oregon-organ distinction

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In some American dialects, an unstressed /ɹəC/ or /ɹɪC/ can elide the /ə/ to become /rC/ (where capital "C" represents a consonant), deleting a syllable as a result. The most common is /ɹəɹ/ or /ɹɪɹ/ reducing to [ɹ] anywhere in a word. Other sequences of /ɹəC/ usually reduce non-word-finally, producing possible homophones like coroner-corner, Morrigan-Morgan and Oregon-organ. In Mid-Atlantic, Oregon is pronounced with three syllables [ˈɒrɪɡ(ə)n],[14] whereas "organ" is pronounced with two syllables [ˈɔːɡ(ə)n].[15]

From-rum distinction

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Most American dialects have replacd of the cot vowel with the strut vowel in most utterances of the words was, of, from, one, what, everybody, nobody, somebody, anybody, because. In the Mid-Atlantic accent, the "cloth" vowel is used in these words, except for "because" which uses the "caught" vowel.

Closing diphthongs[16]
Front Back
Close-mid eɪ̯ oʊ̯
Open-mid ɔɪ̯
Open aɪ̯ ɑʊ̯
Centering diphthongs[16]
Front Back
Close ɪə̯ ʊə̯
Open-mid ɛə̯ ɔə̯
Closing Diphthongs
Example General American Mid-Atlantic Received Pronunciation
bay /eɪ/ [eɪ~ɛ̝ɪ] listen[17] [eɪ] (listen) [eɪ~ɛɪ] (listen)
buy /aɪ/ [äɪ] listen[18] [aɪ] (listen) [aɪ] (listen)
bite [äɪ~ɐɪ~ʌɪ][19]
boy /ɔɪ/ [ɔɪ~oɪ] listen[17] [ɔɪ] (listen) [ɔɪ] (listen)
beau /oʊ/ [oʊ~ɔʊ~ʌʊ] listen[18][20][21] [oʊ] (listen) [əʊ~ɛʊ~ɒʊ~ɔʊ] (listen) (older: [oʊ])
bough /aʊ/ [aʊ~æʊ] listen[17] [ɑʊ] (listen) [aʊ]
Centering diphthongs - stressed
Example General American Mid-Atlantic RP
bar /ɑːr/ [ɑɚ~ɑɹ] listen[17] [ɑːə] (listen) [ɑːɚ] (listen) [ɑː][22]
beer /ɪər/ [iɚ~ɪɚ] listen[17] [ɪə] (listen) [ɪɚ] (listen) [ɪə~ɪː]
bear /eər/ [ɛɚ] listen[17] [ɛə] (listen) [ɛɚ] (listen) [ɛə~ɛː]
boor /ʊər/ [ʊɚ~oɹ~ɔɚ] listen [ʊə] (listen) [ʊɚ] (listen) [ʊə~ɔː]
boar /ɔər/ [ɔə] (listen) [ɔɚ] (listen) [ɔə~ɔː]
Triphthongs[16]
Front Back
Open aɪ̯ə ɑʊ̯ə
Example Mid-Atlantic
tire [aɪə]
tower [ɑʊə]
lower [oʊə]
layer [eɪə]
lawyer [ɔɪə]

Pronunciation of /aɪ/

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In the Mid-Atlantic accent, there is no Canadian raising of /aɪ/. Thus both the /aɪ/ in "tight" and the /aɪ/ in "tide" are pronounced as [aɪ]. Canadian raising of /aɪ/ is very widespread both in Canada and in the US. In North American English, /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ usually begin in an open vowel, something like the vowel in alm [a] , but through raising they shift to a sound similar to the vowel in um: [ɐ] , [ʌ] , or sometimes even [ɜ] or [ə] .

Pronunciation of /ɑʊ/

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In the Mid-Atlantic accent, there is no Canadian raising of /ɑʊ/. Thus both the /ɑʊ/ in "lout" and the /ɑʊ/ in "loud" are pronounced as [ɑʊ]. The diphthong starts with the [ɑ] vowel rather than [a] or [æ] which are very common in American dialects.

Cure-force distinction

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Words in the cure lexical set are pronounced as /ʊr/,[23] as in conservative American and British dialects.

Syllabic consonants

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The final syllable in words such as "button" use syllabics [n̩] and [m̩], rather than a schwa or a schwi. Thus button is pronounced as [bʌtʰn̩] rather than [bʌtʰən].[24]

Vowel contrasts before /ɹ/

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R in next syllable R in same syllable
bat [bæt] marry
bot [bɒt] tomorrow
bought [bɔːt] boring bore
beau [boʊ] hoarse boar [ɔ:ə] (listen) [ɔ:əɹ] (listen)
bah [bɑ:] parry bar [ɑːə] (listen) [ɑːɹ] (listen)
bit [bɪt] mirror beer [ɪə] (listen) [ɪɹ] (listen)
bee [bi:] nearer
bet [bɛt] berry bear [ɛə] (listen) [ɛɹ] (listen)
great [grɛɪt] Mary
put [pʰʊt] tour/boor [ʊə] (listen) [ʊɹ] (listen)
boo [bu:] touring
furry burr [ɜː] (Audio file "en-ma-burr.ogg" not found) [ɜːɹ] (Audio file "en-ma-burr-rr.ogg" not found)

pour pourable

tour touring cure-curing

Only five or six vowel contrasts are possible before a following /ɹ/ in the same syllable (bar, beer, bear, boor, boar, burr). However, more contrasts exist when the /r/ is not in the same syllable.

/ɑɹ/ and /ɔɹ/ before a vowel

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The Mid-Atlantic accent pronounces /ɑɹV/ and /ɔɹV/ the same as in England and the eastern coastal USA. Most American dialects use [ɑɹ] only in a few words.

Polysyllabic words ending in -ary,-ery,-ory,-mony,-ative,-bury,-berry

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Example General American Mid-Atlantic Received Pronunciation[22]
military -ary [ˌɛɹi] [əɹɪ] [əɹɪ~əɹi~ɹɪ~ɹi] or [ˌɛɹi]
-ery
inventory -ory [ˌɔːri]
Canterbury -bury [ˌbɛɹi] [bəɹɪ] [bəɹɪ~ˌbɛɹi]
testimony -mony [ˌmoʊni] [mənɪ] [mənɪ~məni]
innovative -ative [ˌeɪtɪv] [ətɪv~ˌeɪtɪv] [ətɪv~ˌeɪtɪv]

Cure–force distinction

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Mid-Atlantic, like conservative dialects of American English and Received pronunciation, distinguishes the vowels in Cure and Force.[25]


References

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  1. ^ Plag, Ingo; Braun, Maria; Lappe, Sabine; Schramm, Mareile (2009). Introduction to English Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. p. 53. ISBN 978-3-11-021550-2. Retrieved July 4, 2013.
  2. ^ Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2002). The Phonetics of Dutch and English (PDF) (5 ed.). Leiden/Boston: Brill Publishers. p. 178.
  3. ^ Skinner, Monich & Mansell (1990:102)
  4. ^ Mojsin, Lisa (2009), Mastering the American Accent, Barron's Education Series, Inc., p. 36. "The t after n is often silent in American pronunciation. Instead of saying internet Americans will frequently say 'innernet.' This is fairly standard speech and is not considered overly casual or sloppy speech."
  5. ^ Skinner, Monich & Mansell (1990:336)
  6. ^ Wells (1982a:247)
  7. ^ Fletcher, Patricia (February 1, 2013). Classically Speaking. Lulu.com. p. 25. ISBN 9781300594239.
  8. ^ Skinner, Edith (January 1, 1990). Speak with Distinction. Hal Leonard Corporation. ISBN 9781557830470.
  9. ^ Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W.,eds. (January 1, 2004). A Handbook of Varieties of English: CD-ROM. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110175325. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ a b Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (January 1, 2006). The Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology, and Sound Change : a Multimedia Reference Tool. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 187–208. ISBN 3-11-016746-8. Cite error: The named reference ":5" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ Fletcher, Patricia (February 1, 2013). Classically Speaking. Lulu.com. p. 145. ISBN 9781300594239.
  12. ^ a b c d "Cambridge English Dictionary: Definitions & Meanings". dictionary.cambridge.org. Retrieved 2016-12-24.
  13. ^ "Dialect Survey Results". www4.uwm.edu. Retrieved November 6, 2016.
  14. ^ "Oregon - definition of Oregon in English | Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 2016-12-28.
  15. ^ "organ - definition of organ in English | Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 2016-12-28.
  16. ^ a b c Skinner, Monich & Mansell (1990)
  17. ^ a b c d e f Kortmann (2004:263, 264)
  18. ^ a b "Accents of English from Around the World". 2015. Retrieved September 24, 2016. See under "Std US + ‘up-speak’" {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  19. ^ Boberg, Charles (2010). The English Language in Canada: Status, History and Comparative Analysis. Cambridge University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-1-139-49144-0.
  20. ^ Kortmann (2004:343)
  21. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:73)
  22. ^ a b Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter; Hartman, James (1991). English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521680868.
  23. ^ Fletcher, Patricia (February 1, 2013). Classically Speaking. Lulu.com. p. 191. ISBN 9781300594239.
  24. ^ Fletcher, Patricia (February 1, 2013). Classically Speaking. Lulu.com. p. 237. ISBN 9781300594239.
  25. ^ Fletcher, Patricia (February 1, 2013). Classically Speaking. Lulu.com. p. 192. ISBN 9781300594239.
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